Mulan in Three Novels of the Qing Dynasty
The story of Mulan is not only narrated in a cluster of chapters in the hundred-chapter Historical Romance of the Sui and the Tang, but also gave rise to two independent novels. Each of the following summaries is translated from the Zhongguo tongsu xiaoshuo zongmu tiyao.
Chu Renhuo
Historical Romance of the Sui and the Tang
Synopsis of Chapters 56–61
Liu Wuzhou [a Chinese contender to the throne after the fall of the Sui] strikes an alliance with Heshana Khan of the Turks [Western Tujue] to invade Jinyang and Kuaizhou. The khan conscripts an army. Hua Hu’s name figures in the conscription list, but he is already old, so his daughter Mulan dresses up in male garb and joins the army in his stead. Among Liu Wuzhou’s men is a valiant general, Yuchi Gong, who fights fiercely against Qin Shubao [a valiant general of Li Shimin, the future Tang Taizong], but neither side wins a decisive victory over the other. The two men engage in a strength contest. Yuchi Gong uses Qin Shubao’s mace to strike three times at a large boulder, breaking it in two, but Qin Shubao achieves the same effect on another boulder with only two strikes of the mace. Liu Wuzhou suspects that Yuchi Gong has ulterior motives, and he demotes him to Jiexiu to be in charge of fodder. Xu Shiji manages to defeat Liu Wuzhou with a stratagem, and Liu Wuzhou seeks refuge with the Turks, but he is killed by Heshana Khan. Yuchi Gong switches his allegiance to the Tang. Heshana Khan is defeated by Dou Jiande’s troops. Just at the moment of extreme danger, Hua Mulan comes to his rescue and manages to save him, but is captured herself by Dou Xianniang [Jiande’s daughter]. Among the other prisoners is also Qi Guoyuan, who comes from Luo Cheng’s headquarters carrying a letter in which Luo Cheng asks Qin Shubao to ask Shan Xiongxin to act as a matchmaker and arrange a wedding between Luo Cheng and Dou Xianniang. However, Qi Guoyuan has been captured on his way by the khan and made into a cavalry soldier. Dou Xianniang, hearing that Mulan is a filial daughter who has joined the army in place of her father, is filled with admiration for her and retains her as a personal attendant. She also gets hold of Luo Cheng’s letter. Later, the prince of Qin, Li Shimin, defeats Wang Shichong and captures Dou Jiande and Shan Xiongxin. Wang Shichong is discarded as a commoner. Dou Xianniang and Mulan go to meet Li Shimin carrying knives in their mouths, to show their wish to be executed instead of their fathers. Empress Dowager Dou commends the girls’ resolution. She acknowledges Dou Xianniang as a niece and bestows lavish honors upon Mulan, sending them back home. Dou Jiande is also pardoned. He shaves his head and becomes a monk. Shan Xiongxin is executed. Qin Shubao, Xu Shiji, and Cheng Yaojin each slice a piece of their thighs to roast as a sacrificial offering to Shan Xiongxin. Moreover, Qin Huaiyu [Qin Shubao’s son] and Shan Xiongxin’s daughter Ailian are betrothed.
Dou Xianniang goes back home and attends the burial of Empress Cao, moving her residence to the side of the grave. Mulan also returns to her home province, after being entrusted by Dou Xianniang to deliver a letter to Luo Cheng. When Mulan returns home, she finds out that her father has passed away, and that her mother has remarried. When the khan hears of this, he selects Mulan for the imperial harem. Mulan then entrusts her sister Hua Youlan with the delivery of Dou Xianniang’s letter to Luo Cheng. Thereupon, Mulan slits her throat and dies. Hua Youlan, who has donned male clothes to carry out her mission, reaches Youzhou. Luo Cheng soon recognizes her true gender and tries to sleep with her, but Hua Youlan resists firmly. Eventually, she and Dou Xianniang will both marry Luo Cheng. Shan Ailian and Qin Huaiyu also get married.
Zhongguo tongsu xiaoshuo zongmu tiyao, 1990, p. 423.
Anonymous
The Story of the Loyal, Filial, and Heroic Mulan.
Also known as The Story of the Wondrous Maiden Mulan (Mulan qinü zhuan).
Also known as The Complete Story of the Wondrous Maiden Mulan
(Mulan qinü quanzhuan).
(thirty-two-chapter novel; c. 1800)
Synopsis
The novel tells the story of a Zhu Ruoxu, who lives in Shuanglong Garrison [zhen], Xiling District [xian], Guangzhou Prefecture [fu], Huguang province, during the Sui dynasty. Zhu is by nature extremely filial and of peaceable disposition. Because Yang Su, prince of Yue, and Yuwen Huaji, the grand mentor, have arrogated power to themselves, Zhu repeatedly fails to qualify for the prefectural examination. Only when Yang Tingchen is appointed as magistrate of Xiling is Zhu summoned for a personal interview, as a result of which he is selected as the top candidate in the district and sent to the prefecture for further selection. However, the prefectural magistrate Wang Jiu has long been on bad terms with Yang Tingchen, so he has the latter arrested on the false charge that he has recklessly selected bogus scholars. When Dou Zhong, a fellow candidate [of Zhu’s], sees the accusation, he is enraged and raises a rumpus in the courtroom. Dou Zhong happens to be the brother of Dou Jiande, military commissioner of Kaifeng, and Dou Jianwen, attendant gentleman of the left in the ministry of personnel of Heir Apparent Shaobao. When Wang Jiu gets to hear the full story, he is left with no choice but to let Zhu go to the capital as a candidate.
Li Jing of the Li family village in Jingzhao Ward [xiang] is poor but upright. One day, while on his way to Luoyang to visit some relatives, he encounters a dragon god and marries two dragon maidens. The dragon maidens, seeing that Li Jing is of utmost sincerity and uncalculating mind, hand down to him the secret texts on the technique of “evading stems” [dunjia]. Afterward, Li Jing, having failed to win over Wu Yunzhao, throws in his lot with Yang Su. Yang Su’s concubine Hongfu elopes during the nighttime with Li Jing, and the two of them subsequently seek refuge in Taiyuan. Li Jing spends five years in Taiyuan, during which he devises three plans on behalf of Li Shimin and then returns to Chang’an. He pays a visit to Yang Su, bringing with him a fine steed and a bejeweled sword to ask for forgiveness. Yang Su has Li Jing build a following of clients.
While going to the capital, Zhu passes by the temple of the Goddess of Smallpox. The goddess enlightens him through the combined teachings of Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism, and Zhu loses interest in pursuing an official career. He reaches the capital just at the time when Yangdi has murdered his father and killed his brother. He goes to visit Li Jing and acknowledges him as his teacher. Li Jing hands down to him the secret texts on the evading stems technique, whereupon Zhu takes leave to return to his hometown. At Zhuxian Garrison he meets with Yuchi Gong, from Mayi District in Shandong, who sells his writing skills for a living. The two become sworn brothers, and Zhu recommends Yuchi Gong for appointment and sends him to the capital to meet Li Jing.
In Chang’an Li Jing recommends Yuchi Gong, Wei Zheng, Fang Xuanling, Qin Jing, Chu Suiliang, Cheng Zhijie, Changsun Wuji, and others to Li Shimin. As a result, Yuchi Gong serves as military adviser, Wei Zheng assists as preceptor to the emperor, and Fang Xuanling serves as assistant in the establishment of schools. Thus, the Taiyuan administration improves with each passing day. When Yangdi travels south to Yangzhou, lingering there and forgetting to return, all the noblemen of the empire take possession of their provinces and commanderies. Li Jing then secretly returns to Taiyuan.
Zhu, after returning to his hometown, practices meditation every day with monks, nuns, and Daoist adepts. As a result, his granddaughter Zhu Mulan, who is not yet ten years old, is thoroughly versed in all the doctrines of the Three Teachings, Mind-to-Mind Transmission, and the Sublime Dharma. At that time, Grand Mentor Wu Jianzhang is killed for disobeying a decree. His son Yunzhao leads an army to attack Nanyang, but he is defeated by Han Qinhu. He then becomes a monk and assumes the Dharma name “Sangwu” [Mourning for the Self]. Zuiyue [Drunken Moon], the abbot of Guanyin Monastery in Shuanglong Garrison, invites Sangwu to preach the Dharma in his monastery. At that time, Mulan, who is just ten years old, is fully able to sustain a conversation with Sangwu. When Zhu is about to die, he hands down to Mulan the occult books on the “evading stems” technique. After his death, the house is burnt to ashes by a fire. The household is entirely supported by the two women’s and Mulan’s needlework.
Soon after, the Sui dynasty comes to an end and the Tang dynasty is established. Yuchi Gong, duke of Guo, carries out the imperial order to build the walls of Wuchang. The project has just finished when he is again ordered to repair Xiling Monastery. Yuchi Gong, to show gratitude for Zhu’s assistance, recommends that Zhu’s son Tianlu be put in charge of the local battalion [difang qianhu]. He also recommends Tianlu’s brother Tianxi as prefect of Changsha, and Yang Tingchen’s son Yan as prefect of Wuzhou. Mulan practices horse riding, archery, and military training every day in addition to spinning and weaving. With the guidance of Sangwu, Mulan masters all seventy-two weapon techniques. A thousand-year-old fox spirit teases Mulan, but she injures one of its legs with the precious sword presented to her by Sangwu, and the fox spirit disappears.
Taizong plans to wage a campaign against the Turks. He appoints Yuchi Gong as generalissimo, and Li Jing as army supervisor. Yuchi Gong conscripts soldiers in Huguang for the northern campaign, and he promotes Zhu Tianlu to be in charge of the cavalry. However, Zhu Tianlu suddenly falls ill, so Mulan dresses up in male garb and joins the army in her father’s stead, fulfilling her duties both as a filial daughter and as a loyal subject. Mulan meets Yuchi Gong and Li Jing, and together they reminisce about the past. Mulan is enfeoffed as general of Wuzhao. The great army is soon deployed. On their march [to the frontier], they pass by Wutai Mountain. There, Mulan pays a visit to Sangwu’s friend, the Daoist Jingsong, who presents her with a wise camel. This is like adding wings to a tiger.
When the Chinese army reaches Jiebei Pass, Ebao, who is in charge of guarding the pass, immediately sends the signal for help. The king of the Turks appoints Xiehe as generalissimo, and Kanghe’a as army supervisor to fight against the enemy. Mulan takes Wulang [Five Wolves] Pass with a stratagem and captures Li Chen, who is in charge of guarding the pass, and Xiehe.
The war continues like this for ten years, during which the Tang army is only able to take one pass and two commanderies. Taizong issues a decree to demote Yuchi Gong and Li Jing to commandant [houjue] in order to urge the army to fight a more successful campaign. The king of the Turks also issues an edict, to recruit worthy advisers. The thousand-year-old fox spirit that had been injured by Mulan has now transformed into the great immortal Dushou, who is appointed as army supervisor. Through his magic arts he repeatedly defeats the Tang army. However, Mulan is able to defeat his sorcery with the magic talisman of the Daoist master Tieguan [Iron Cap], and [she] breaks into Yumen Pass. The generalissimo of the Northern Barbarians is killed, and the vice general is captured. The king of the Turks declares himself a subject of the Tang and surrenders to China.
Mulan returns in triumph. Passing by Wutai Mountain, she once again performs obeisance to the Daoist master Jingsong. Jingsong invites Mulan to see the Confucian master Wu Dagao, who expounds to her the doctrine of Confucius and Mencius, the principles of humaneness, justice, rites, and wisdom, the virtues of filiality, brotherly love, loyalty, and trust. Thereupon, Mulan is awakened to the truth. After returning to court, Mulan receives titles of nobility, and she is appointed as attendant gentleman of the left in the Ministry of War. When Mulan is summoned to the capital, she submits a memorial to express her true feelings, in which she reveals that she is a woman and does not wish to move to the capital. Taizong then enfeoffs Mulan as princess of Wuzhao and confers on her the imperial surname Li. He also bestows titles upon her parents and brothers. Later on, Mulan’s parents both pass away, and she engages in earnest self-cultivation while also raising and educating her small brothers. Taizong once again summons her to the capital, but Mulan sends a second memorial to express her feelings, in which she begs the emperor to allow her to observe mourning for her parents and take care of her brothers.
Later, Taizong pays heed to the malicious rumors spread by Zhang Changzong and Xu Jingzong, to the extent that great chaos will surely come from those who carry the surname Wu, that is to say, the Wuzhao general Mulan. Therefore, Taizong summons Mulan to the capital for the third time with the intention of killing her. Mulan submits a third memorial to express her feelings, in which she expresses her loyalty and chastity, and to prove her sincerity she cuts open her chest with a sword [and dies].
Taizong is filled with remorse. He changes Mulan’s title to “chaste and heroic” princess and inscribes her memorial arch with a plaque that reads “Loyal, Filial, Courageous, and Heroic.” Mulan is buried at the foot of Mulan Mountain. After Wu Zetian has ascended the throne, she bestows the title of Empress Zhaolie on Mulan.
Zhongguo tongsu xiaoshuo zongmu tiyao, 1990, pp. 673–4.
Zhang Shaoxian
An Extraordinary History of the Northern Wei:
The Story of a Filial and Heroic Girl.
(forty-six-chapter novel; 1850)
Synopsis
The novel tells of He Hu, chief bandit of Black Mountain during the reign of Tuoba Gui (386–409) of the Northern Wei. He Hu gathers 100,000 people in order to usurp the power of the Northern Wei. The counselor in chief Wulühe personally sponsors the grand commander in chief Xin Ping to be appointed as generalissimo and the vice commander in chief Niu He to be appointed as vanguard. Together, they lead an army of twenty thousand, which sets forth to exterminate the enemy. They also carry the imperial order to draft commoners into the army to take part in the campaign.
In the Hua family village of Hebei commandery, Hua Hu, a former battalion head, has long lived in retirement. His elder daughter, Mulan, who is just seventeen years old, has been betrothed to Wang Qingyun, the son of Assistant Instructor Wang from the same village. However, the wedding has not yet taken place. Hua Hu’s younger daughter, Munan, is only nine years old, while his son, Jiao’er, is only five. The district head puts Hua Hu’s name at the top of the conscription list and orders him to join the army without the slightest delay. Mulan, knowing that her father has attempted several times to put an end to his life, is in constant distress night and day. She then orders her maid to buy clothes and a horse in order to join the army in her father’s stead. Her parents will not hear of it, but when Mulan takes out her sword in order to slit her throat, they give their consent. Mulan therefore joins the army, assuming the name of her father and, together with Mo Qianzhu and He Rugu from the same commandery, she crosses the Yellow River and reaches Gubeikou.
Mulan displays great prowess while performing military exercises on the training field. She is appointed as commandant by the generalissimo Xin Ping, and she leads a battalion of five thousand commoners and soldiers coming under the command of the vanguard Niu He to take Mao’erling. Niu He underestimates the enemy’s strength, and his camp is raided during a nighttime sortie led by the bandit leader Gaixiong, which results in great losses. Luckily, Mulan comes to Niu He’s aid with her troops, and she also manages to take Xishan through a stratagem. Niu He, to conceal the losses suffered by his army, does not reward Mulan for her achievement. He Rugu and others are indignant at this injustice, but Mulan manages to appease them using a trick.
The generalissimo Xin Ping personally visits the place where the camp is located. Niu He falsely reports that the military plans have been leaked. He slanders Mulan as intractable and refractory. Mulan, seeing that the generalissimo does not mention her military accomplishments, knows that Niu He is envious of her ability and sagacity and secretly sighs over her sad fate.
The generalissimo Xin Ping personally visits the strategic location occupied by the bandits and investigates their stronghold. He manages to capture Gaixiong and to take Gao Pass from the enemy with a stratagem. The bandit leader of Xiaohong Mountain, Zhao Rang, is set on avenging Gaixiong. He goes to battle against the Wei army with his female cousin Lu Wanhua but is defeated every time by Mulan.
The army supervisor Sun Siqiao concentrates solely on defending his position, always refusing to attack. Thus, six years pass by without the slightest progress. The Wei ruler issues an order urging Xin Ping to advance the army. Xin Ping consults with all the generals on how to proceed. Niu He suggests the stratagem of offering amnesty and recommends sending Hua Hu as emissary; in fact, his true intention is to “kill with a borrowed sword.” Xin Ping therefore promotes Mulan as assistant commander and acting vice general in charge of carrying the amnesty proclamation. Sun Siqiao keeps her as a hostage and orders Zhao Rang to give his cousin Lu Wanhua to Hua Hu as a concubine in order to keep him at bay. Mulan has no choice but to agree for the sake of expediency, but eventually her secret is discovered by Lu Wanhua. Mulan declares her true feelings, and Lu Wanhua, who had long harbored the intention of returning to the Chinese side, expresses her willingness to surrender to the Northern Wei. The two girls become sworn sisters and make a vow to both marry Wang. With a stratagem, Lu Wanhua lets Mulan escape from the bandits’ mountain stronghold. She also works to sabotage from within Zhao Rang’s plan to feign surrender, and as a result Zhao Rang is killed by firearms. When the Xiaohong Mountain stronghold is taken, Sun Siqiao is captured and killed. Lu Wanhua takes this chance to seek refuge among the bandit lairs of Black Mountain in order to act as a mole. Mulan is hit in the course of the battle, and she spits blood; she remains at Xiaohong Mountain to recover.
Xin Ping personally leads the campaign against Black Mountain. The bandit leader’s wife Miao Fengxian has extremely lethal flying cymbals, with which she kills Niu He at the foot of his horse and injures many high generals. Xin Ping is left at his wit’s end. Mulan, who has by now recovered from her injuries, is able to counter the flying cymbals with the magic arrow given to her by Li Jing, the heavenly king who bears the pagoda [in his hand]. As a result, Miao Fengxian is stabbed to death. He Hu crosses the Black River and flees. Xin Ping appoints Hua Hu as vanguard to chase after him. Mulan crosses the Black River by means of a wine jug and goes straight to Black Mountain.
Since Xin Ping has not been able to quell the bandits for seven years, the Wei ruler plans to dispatch an army supervisor to urge the advance of the army. Following Wulühe’s advice, he orders examinations in order to recruit new officials. Wang Qingyun places first with great honors, and he is sent as army supervisor. When Mulan and Wang Qingyun meet, they both are bashful. Wang Qingyun observes the topographical configuration of Black Mountain, and he writes a memorial to ask that the “red coat big cannon” be sent in order to attack the enemy. These weapons take over two years to be manufactured in the arsenal of the Ministry of War. As soon as they are completed, they are immediately sent to Black River. Twelve years have already passed since Mulan joined the army. Black Mountain is bombarded, and He Hu flees for his life, but Mulan manages to capture him, while Lu Wanhua leads the bandits to surrender.
Hua Mulan calls back her troops and, together with Mo Qianzhu and He Rugu, returns to her hometown, where she is reunited with her family. Mulan takes off her military garments and resumes her feminine appearance. When she comes out to meet Mo and He, the two are awestruck. The story is immediately spread across the whole of Pingyang. When it reaches the ears of the Wei emperor, he summons Mulan to court. Mulan has joined the army in place of her father, fighting outside of the Great Wall for twelve years, and while doing so she has not only remained loyal and filial, but she has also managed to return with her chastity intact. For all these reasons, Mulan can truly be considered the foremost hero among women. Thereupon, she is granted the title of “chaste and filial lady of first rank.” Lu Wanhua is granted the title of “loyal and righteous lady.” Wang Qingyun is appointed minister of personnel. A date is chosen, and the wedding is celebrated.
Zhongguo tongsu xiaoshuo zongmu tiyao, 1990, pp. 699–700.
Translated by Maria Franca Sibau