CHAPTER 4

Teaching and Assessment: Using the CLB in a Range of Contexts under the Stewardship of the Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks

Anne Senior

ASTEC Inc., Specialist Consultant to CCLB

1. Introduction

This chapter outlines the evolution and expanding focus of the Canadian Language Benchmarks (CLB) and describes the many tools and resources developed by the Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks (CCLB) to support the use of the CLB as a practical, fair, reliable, and transparent national standard for assessing, teaching, and evaluating English as a second language in Canada. The CCLB also developed and revised the Niveaux de compétence linguistique canadiens (NCLC) and continues to support their use as a practical, fair, reliable, and transparent national standard for assessing, teaching, and evaluating French as a second language in Canada. The development and use of the NCLC are covered in another chapter of this book; this chapter focuses on the CLB.

The chapter begins with a brief review of, and rationale for, the evolution of the CLB in relation to assessment, teaching, and evaluation. It continues by examining the role of the CCLB in the evolution of the CLB and in the safeguarding of the standard. The chapter then reviews the CLB as they are used for placement assessment, high-stakes assessment, tool and resource development, teacher training, and employment. It concludes by considering the future of the CLB and the CCLB.

2. Evolution of the Canadian Language Benchmarks

The Canadian Language Benchmarks are the national standard for describing, measuring, and recognizing the English-language proficiency of persons in Canada, as well as of immigrants and other persons destined for Canada (CCLB 2016a). Since 1996, they have become the backbone of Canada’s publicly-funded adult second-language training programs. To support and promote their use as a practical, fair, reliable, and transparent national standard, the CCLB was established in 1998.

The CLB, including a literacy component, were developed in 1996 by the federal department then known as Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC), in response to a need articulated by new immigrants in 1993 at the Teachers of English as a Second Language (TESL) Canada Learners’ Conference. The learners sought a way of enabling themselves to demonstrate and understand their language proficiency and to help them access the services, supports, and jobs that they needed in order to settle in Canada. Responding to this need, the CLB were developed for use in Canada within publicly funded language training and assessment organizations. As awareness and use of the CLB grew over the years, additional uses for the standard were recognized. The CLB were primarily established with a settlement focus, but employment and economic needs, wider use of the CLB with other types of programming, and the addition of higher-level and targeted language training led to the expanded use of the standard in a variety of second-language contexts.

Revisions to the CLB were made in 2000 and 2012 (Pawlikowska-Smith 2000, CIC and CCLB 2012) in response to evolving needs and changes in foci. The 2012 version incorporated a high degree of rigour, which was confirmed by a comprehensive validation process (Burnot-Trites and Barbour 2012). This revision supported the use of the CLB in contexts where they had been previously found deficient, such as academic, employment, and overseas applications. The CLB are now recognized as appropriate for use in a wide variety of contexts, including high-stakes ones. These include language training, assessment, immigration, and citizenship, as well as workplace, regulatory, and academic contexts. Enshrined in the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA) regulations, the CLB have unified discussion among diverse stakeholders across the country on topics such as the development of tools and resources, performance measurement, immigrant selection policy, and citizenship goals (Blakely and Singh 2012).

Although there was a version of the CLB for literacy in the 1996 document, it was in 2000 that, recognizing the diverse needs of learners, the government of Manitoba co-founded the development of the Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000: ESL for Literacy Learners (CIC 2000), which laid out the progression of reading, writing, and numeracy skills for English as a second language (ESL) adult learners with limited or no literacy skills, and which could also be used with ESL students who were literate in a non-Roman alphabet but who needed to learn reading and writing basics in English. In 2014, that document was comprehensively revised to more closely align the literacy benchmarks with those of the new CLB. The Canadian Language Benchmarks: ESL for ALL (Adult Literacy Learners) (CIC and CCLB 2014) is an updated, comprehensive document designed to support program administrators, curriculum developers, teachers, and assessors in the instruction of ESL learners who have limited or no literacy skills.

3. Why Did this Evolution Occur?

The CLB consist of twelve benchmarks in three stages that describe language proficiency from the very beginning to advanced levels of proficiency. The standard has a solid theoretical framework, reflecting the communicative models of language ability promoted by Bachman (1990), Bachman and Palmer (1996, 2010), and Celce-Murcia, Dörnyei and Thurrell (1995). According to Bachman (1990), language ability requires a combination of language knowledge (i.e., knowledge of grammatical, lexical, organizational, and pragmatic rules of language use) and strategic competence (cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies for managing language knowledge). The CLB competency statements reflect the inter-relationship of constituent aspects of language ability that can be demonstrated through language tasks. The CLB are task-based and learner-centred (CIC and CCLB 2012).

The solid theoretical framework (Burnot-Trites et al. 2015), revision, and comprehensive validation process (Burnot-Trites and Barbour, 2012) ensured that the 2012 version of the CLB could be compared with, and hold up well against, other international standards, such as the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2001). Thus the CCLB can reference independent validation experts and reviewers when it says:

Moreover, test developers use the CLB to create assessment tools to measure and report on learner proficiency levels for a variety of purposes and stakeholders, and benchmarking experts use the CLB to compare the language demands of an occupation to particular levels of proficiency to help various stakeholders (e.g., labour-market associations, sector councils, licensing bodies, and employers) understand how the language requirements for specific professions and trades are referenced to the national standard of language proficiency, and, in some cases, determine correlation to existing occupational task-based standards.

4. Role of the CCLB in this Evolution

Addressing the needs of English as a second language and literacy practitioners are key activities for the CCLB, which is the centre of expertise in support of both the CLB and the NCLC national standards. Soon after the introduction of the CLB in 1996, the need emerged for an institution outside government to take responsibility for CLB projects. Key federal and provincial funders and other stakeholders co-operated to establish the CCLB, so in March 1998 the CCLB received its charter as a non-profit corporation.

The CCLB’s mission is to lead and provide expertise in the implementation and dissemination of the CLB as a practical, fair, and reliable national standard of English-language proficiency, in education, training, community, and workplace settings. This chapter relates to CCLB’s support of the CLB; however, its roles and responsibilities are equally applicable to the NCLC.

The CCLB’s current strategic plan states its five key directions, which are consistent with the intent behind its establishment in 1998 (CCLB 2015):

As mentioned earlier, the CCLB maintains a comprehensive national CLB assessment system for use in adult ESL, education, training, and the labour market. It also provides a system of recognition for assessors and assessment service providers across Canada. With the support of federal and provincial funders, the CCLB has also developed numerous tools and resources to support assessors and practitioners, and has collaborated or advised on many others.

Nowadays, all of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada’s (IRCC’s) language tools and resources are based on the CLB framework, ensuring consistency and reliability. The catalyst for much of the CCLB’s work is the federal government’s Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC) program, which was introduced in 1992. The LINC program made official-language training available to all adult permanent residents, with over 100,000 learners participating in the program in 2015. Although LINC is primarily classroom-based, LINC Home Study was developed in 1995 to provide a distance-training option for newcomers who otherwise would have no access to language training. LINC Home Study has evolved from a largely correspondence model to a largely online system.

LINC programming is accessed through a comprehensive, national, CLB-based assessment system. Although this chapter focuses on CLB-related tools and resources, it is impossible to discuss assessment and assessor training without acknowledging the pioneering and ongoing work of the Peel Board of Education’s Centre for Language Training and Assessment (CLTA) – later The Centre for Education and Training (TCET) – and the contribution of test developers Bonny Peirce and Gail Stewart, who developed many CLB-based assessments for both the TCET and the CCLB.

In announcing its new immigrant language training policy in the early 1990s, Employment and Immigration Canada (a predecessor of IRCC) stressed that a key to developing the most effective training possible is to clearly relate the training to individual needs of clients. It stated that to do this, “reliable tools are needed to measure the language skills possessed by clients against standard language proficiency criteria. For federally-funded training this will mean that real client language needs can be met and that clients will have access to equivalent types and results of training regardless of where they settle in Canada” (Rogers 1993, 1). This policy had significant influence on the development of placement-assessment tools that are used nationally. These tools provide a portable credential for placement into appropriate language training and inform curriculum development, materials, and resources.

5. The CLB and Placement Assessment

The CLB standardized assessment tools have been developed and validated for achievement, placement, or outcomes testing that either assessors or instructors in ESL classes can administer under rigorous test conditions to produce reliable results. Standardized assessor training, as well as calibration and refresher workshops, are a mandatory part of accreditation to conduct CLB-based placement assessments, which helps to maintain consistency and fairness of administration.

For initial placement in language programs, learners are assessed by tests which assign benchmarks that indicate the degree of ability the learner achieves for each language skill. In order to be assigned a benchmark, a learner must demonstrate the abilities and characteristics of that benchmark to a sufficient degree. The development of the first version of the CLB and the first placement test, the Canadian Language Benchmarks Assessment (CLBA), took place concurrently and iteratively (Norton Peirce and Stewart 1997). The CLBA was developed under the direction of the Peel Board of Education. Both the 1996 CLB working document and the test separated language skills into three distinct areas: listening/speaking, reading, and writing.

The revised version of the CLB published in 2000 separated language skills into four distinct areas: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The need to assess the four skills independently, instead of combining listening and speaking, and the desire for a more streamlined assessment, led to the CCLB developing the Canadian Language Benchmarks Placement Test (CLBPT) in 2002. The CLBA and the CLBPT are both still used across Canada on a face-to-face basis for placement into language training programs and are usually administered through assessment centres. There are multiple versions of both tests, but neither one has undergone significant revision after the publication of the 2012 version of the CLB. In 2015, the CCLB adapted the CLBPT for remote delivery as a viable alternative to using itinerant assessors and to increase client access using non-traditional means.

The Canadian Language Benchmarks Literacy Assessment (CLBLA) was created in 2000 to support the placement of literacy learners into programs using the CLB. The Literacy Placement Tool (LPT) volumes 1 and 2 followed in 2005. The two tests are very different. Developed for use by trained assessors, the CLBLA uses learners’ first-language tasks in twenty-six languages to determine what literacy skills they have that would be transferable to the acquisition of English as a second language. LPT volumes 1 and 2 were developed for use by ESL literacy assessors and practitioners to facilitate appropriate placement in a literacy program and assessment within the program. The LPT assessment is conducted only in English. Although both tests are somewhat compatible with the CLB 2000 literacy document (even though the CLBLA is based on the 1996 version of the CLB), a new test shall be developed in order to take into account the increased knowledge of the literacy learners’ needs that is reflected in the Canadian Language Benchmarks: ESL for ALL 2014 version.

Recognizing that language proficiency may be a driver for successful employment, both the CCLB and the TCET have also developed tests to assess learners with higher-level benchmarks in order to facilitate entry into bridging programs or specialized language training. These assessments: Enhanced Language Training Placement Assessment (ELTPA), developed by TCET, and Workplace Language Assessment (WLA) (CCLB 2009), developed by the CCLB, assess up to CLB levels 9/10.

All the assessments mentioned above are key components of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada’s (IRCC’s) National Language Placement and Progression Guidelines (CIC 2013), with data recorded in the Immigration Contribution Agreement Reporting Environment (iCARE); the History of Assessments, Referrals and Training system (HARTs); and IRCC’s and the Ontario Ministry of Citizenship, Immigration and International Trade’s Co-ordinated Language Assessment and Referral System (CLARS).

The CCLB and the TCET developed assessments separately throughout the early years of the CLB, as tools were seemingly funded on an ad hoc basis, in response to pressing and immediate demands. Recently, the two organizations have begun to develop tools collaboratively, capitalizing on their organizational strengths to be more cost- and time-effective, with less duplication. The maturation of the standard, along with increased awareness of the need for responsible stewardship and greater fiscal responsibility may be reflected in future collaborative approaches to test development.

6. The CLB and High-Stakes Assessment

In the early twenty-first century, the CCLB widened its range of test-development expertise with a move to occupation-specific and other high-stakes tests. The development and implementation of the Canadian English Language Benchmark Assessment for Nurses (CELBAN) meant that it was the first CLB-based test with the rigour and validity to be used for high-stakes purposes. It was also the first instance of a high-stakes assessment being used to assess language proficiency for a profession in North America.

The CELBAN was developed in 2004 by the CCLB in consultation with members of the nursing community and with input from regulatory bodies, associations, unions, and nursing refresher programs, as well as internationally educated nurses (IENs). It was designed to ease the nursing shortage in Canada by providing access to the pool of IENs who had arrived in Canada but had then encountered obstacles to obtaining employment. The CELBAN is an occupation-specific language test that assesses proficiency within real-world health care scenarios. It evaluates proficiency in listening, speaking, reading, and writing, and is now widely used and acknowledged as a key tool in assisting IENs’ entry to practice in Canada. The CELBAN is one of two tests recognized as proof of language proficiency by all Canadian nursing regulators. The CCLB contracts the Touchstone Institute to act as the national CELBAN administration centre.

The CCLB also developed occupation-specific high-stakes tests in English and French for the engineering profession. Based on prior benchmarking research, these allowed for fair, valid, and reliable assessment for four engineering disciplines: civil, mechanical, electrical, and chemical. The development of these tests was significant, as both English and French versions of the test were developed simultaneously by a bilingual team of experts. These tests had not been implemented by Engineers Canada, owner of the tests, as of 2016.

The CCLB is playing an integral part in the ongoing global discussion and research on the relative value of occupation-specific tests versus generic high-stakes tests for determining the communicative competencies and language proficiency required to work successfully in regulated occupations.

In line with this debate, in 2010, CIC (now IRRC), contracted the CCLB to develop a prototype high-stakes generic assessment, the Milestones test, designed independently of language training programs to measure and certify proficiency from CLB 3 to 9+ levels. The Milestones test was designed to be especially rigorous at CLB 4 and CLB 7 levels. In 2015–16, it was used as one component of the LINC program evaluation to compare the language-learning progress of learners enrolled in LINC classes with that of individuals not enrolled in any language training.

The Milestones test has potential for use for a variety of high-stakes purposes, including citizenship, academic entry, and entry to practise within regulated professions. It is a highly secure, valid, and reliable standardized tool, with the flexibility to evolve based on future goals and needs.

The Milestones is the only high-stakes test in Canada that reflects specifically the CLB standard, and therefore should bring a high measure of confidence in its use as a valid, fair, and reliable assessment for purposes for which a CLB benchmark level is required.

7. The CLB Tools and Resources

While the CLB standard describes a broad range of competencies at each benchmark level, it is not a curriculum and does not include all the possible communication tasks learners may encounter or have to perform in their daily lives. The CCLB’s development of additional task-based resources and tools, as well as training on how to use them, ensures that users of the standard are supported as they strive to meet their learners’ needs.

One such resource is the CLB Support Kit, published by CCLB in 2012. Accompanied by exemplars of receptive and productive tasks at benchmarks 1 to 12, the CLB Support Kit was developed alongside the revised CLB 2012 to orient users to the new standard.

The kit serves as background information for in-service training on the revised CLB for instructors working in programs funded by IRCC. It includes exemplars for listening, speaking, reading, and writing for all CLB levels and is complemented by face-to-face training, often delivered using a train-the-trainer model.

A major initiative that will change the face of adult ESL training in Canada will be completely implemented by 2017–18: Portfolio-Based Language Assessment (PBLA) (Pettis 2014). In 2009, IRCC embarked on this journey through limited pilots in order to foster a formative assessment culture consistent with a CLB approach to teaching. When fully implemented, it is expected to motivate student progress and facilitate mobility among the CLB-based federal and provincial language training programs. PBLA is a comprehensive, systematic approach to language assessment in the classroom based on the model of Collaborative Language Assessment implemented in Manitoba in 2004. PBLA is intended to be embedded in curricula and should be an integral and ongoing part of the teaching and learning cycle. Depending on the CLB level, teachers and students collaborate to set language-learning goals, compile numerous examples of language proficiency and learning in a variety of contexts over time, analyse the data, and reflect on progress. PBLA was undertaken as an IRCC priority in response to studies on language training in Canada which noted that assessment in LINC programs was ad hoc and inconsistent (Makosky 2008, Nagy and Stewart 2009).

PBLA benefits both learners and instructors alike, as it addresses diagnostic, formative, and summative purposes of assessment and reflects research-based principles. PBLA motivates learners and engages them in their language learning, develops instructor expertise, and contributes to greater consistency in assessing and reporting on CLB outcomes. PBLA also contributes to the professional development of teachers and builds capacity. Teachers meet regularly in their own program, or with teachers in other programs, to ensure homogeneous and consistent implementation.

PBLA builds on a long tradition of CLB-based resources and tools supporting both formative and summative assessment: Integrating CLB Assessment into your ESL Classroom (Holmes 2005), Summative Assessment Manual, CLB 5-10 Exit Assessment Tasks, Can Do Statements (CCLB 2014), and Can Do Statements for Employment (CCLB 2016b). These tools and resources are available on the CCLB website (www.language.ca) and on Tutela (www.tutela.ca), the national online repository of language training resources. The CCLB co-ordinated and collected seed content for Tutela in the first phase of its development, and continues to support its vision of being a community of practice-driven initiatives for teachers to share resources and best practices, and to network with each other.

Learners may use a list of learning outcomes referenced to the CLB (such as the Can Do Statements) as a basis for self-assessment. Self-assessment provides valuable opportunities for learners to take greater responsibility for their own learning. It also allows them to reflect on their strengths and identify their goals. TCET has also developed an online self-assessment in English that corresponds with a similar tool developed by the CCLB in French to provide test-takers with an idea of their language ability.

The CLB owe their strength not only to the support they receive from the government of Canada but also to the provincial and territorial governments that have adopted them for adult ESL programming, and to the many service providers who use the CLB on a daily basis and who have also developed CLB-based tools and resources, often collaboratively with the CCLB. Support from Ontario’s Ministry of Immigration, Citizenship and International Trade led to the development of Quartz 2016: Ontario Curriculum Guidelines – interactive planning tools for course, unit lesson planning, and assessment. To develop Quartz, the CCLB formed a partnership with the Toronto Catholic District School Board with the objective of aligning the Ontario language training program with the CLB and the Niveaux de compétence linguistique canadiens (NCLC).

8. The CLB and Teacher Training

The national consultation on the CLB, which published its report in 2010 (Smit and Turcot 2010), led to the revision of the standard in 2012, after receiving input from over 1,300 stakeholders. While overwhelmingly supportive of the CLB and its continued use, respondents indicated a continued need for training and support. The national consultation showed that there was disparity in terms of quality and quantity of CLB content available in TESL training programs for new ESL instructors, that instructors across the country valued and appreciated in-service training that they received on CLB tools and resources, and that CLB resources were very well respected and used in the field.

Nowadays, the CCLB offers professional development to support assessors and instructors, based on the theory of reflective practice that sees teachers as voluntary attendees who engage in professional development because they want to reflect on their practice in order to better serve their students (Farrell 2012). Training workshops are offered face-to-face and online across Canada, covering a range of topics based around the task-based approach and the theory of communicative competence.

For instance, funded in 2015–16 by the Ontario Ministry of Citizenship, Immigration and International Trade (MCIIT), the revised CLB Boot Camp is an online ten-hour self-study course on the revised Canadian Language Benchmarks. It comprises three modules: “CLB Basics,” “Planning and the CLB,” and “Assessment and the CLB.” A certificate of completion can be generated for instructors wishing to document professional-development (PD) hours for TESL Ontario or for other purposes. This is an updated version of the original CLB Boot Camp developed in 2008.

In 2015, the government of Alberta funded a CLB: ESL for ALL Boot Camp, based on the new adult literacy standard that responds to needs articulated by literacy practitioners. This is an asynchronous training course that takes teachers through a structured learning cycle: orient, consider, apply, and reflect. The CCLB is proposing currently to develop more training on literacy, especially to support those working with literacy learners in mainstream classes.

Similar online and face-to-face training is an integral part of the sustainability plan for PBLA, to ensure that the transfer of knowledge is not diluted or undermined by lack of consistency.

Other CCLB resources support those working with learners with ESL literacy needs, with those preparing for the workplace, refugees, learners with higher levels of language, and general and occupation-specific workplace preparation needs. The CCLB also provides courses on the CLB as part of Post-TESL Certificate Training offered by TESL Ontario, to enhance current teacher development and professionalism, and to address the need for specialized training to meet evolving program and learner needs.

9. The CLB in the Employment Context

Recognizing the importance of language in an employment context has led to several CCLB initiatives. Since 2003, the CCLB has been involved in aligning the CLB with the Essential Skills Framework developed by the department then known as Human Resources and Skills Development Canada (HRSDC). Work-related skills, including some communication ones, are defined in Essential Skills profiles, which are used nationally to define the skills required to work in a wide range of occupations. The Essential Skills discuss communication in terms of native speakers of English, so that when they are aligned with the CLB they more adequately support second-language speakers. The 2005 Comparative Framework aligned CLB skills with four of the nine Essential Skills, although the document concedes that this is not a straightforward alignment, but rather an intersection that reflects the complex and multi-dimensional relationship between two very different underlying scales and constructs (CCLB 2005). Between 2000 and 2012, many occupations developed and/or put in place national standards for individuals working in an occupation or profession. In many occupations, there are also expectations that a second-language speaker must be able to work safely in the occupation/profession and that language ability plays a key role in almost all jobs.

The CCLB continues to work with regulators across Canada as they grapple with how to determine fair, rigorous, valid, and cost-effective ways of removing the barriers that prevent internationally educated professionals from working in their field and to ensure that Canada effectively uses the human capital available to it. The CCLB assists employers and regulatory bodies through two key initiatives: Benchmarking of an occupation and Occupational Language Analyses (OLA). Benchmarking is a rigorous process that uses primary and secondary sources to document the language demands of an occupation. Increasingly sought after by regulatory bodies, the process provides a benchmark for each of the four language skills that can be used for entry-to-practice or for full-working-capacity, as determined by the regulatory body. Occupational Language Analyses (OLA) determine the language demands of an occupation using validated secondary sources, such as National Occupation Standards, along with the Essential Skills profiles, or sector-specific standards. The CCLB has benchmarked or developed OLAs for over 140 occupations to date. In addition, it has benchmarked all the Red Seal trade examinations to ensure fairness, validity, reliability, and transparency in their use with all candidates. Experience has shown that each sector and profession deals with questions around appropriate levels and ways to evaluate proficiency in different ways, but with a lot of cross-pollination of ideas and methods.

To meet the needs of stakeholders who work with immigrants in pre-employment, counselling, and hiring and/or retaining immigrants, the CCLB has developed several tools and resources for counsellors, teachers in bridging programs, human-resources personnel, sector councils, and employers that are available on the CCLB website (www.language.ca). These tools and resources include, among others: Prior Learning and Assessment Checklist (CCLB 2007a); Workplace Language Assessment (CCLB 2009); Workplace Language Assessment Pre-Screener for use by counsellors (CCLB 2007b); Work Ready – a paper and online resource for employers and counsellors (CCLB 2007c); and Can Do Statements for Employment (CCLB 2016b) for use by employers, counsellors, and individuals; as well as the CLB Essential Skills website (www.itsessential.ca).

10. Future of the CLB

“By articulating standards for language proficiency, all stakeholders can now speak a common language and make informed decisions regarding settlement, training and employment opportunities” (Pawlikowska-Smith 2000). Formulated so confidently in the CLB 2000, these words implied that the CLB were firmly entrenched in Canada and integral to all components of settlement and language. As the national consultation on the CLB (which led to revised English and French versions of the standard in 2012) showed, this had not completely happened. The standard had continued to evolve and it continues to evolve to this day. It is a living document that supports the changing needs of immigration in Canada within a rigorous and reliable framework. In the early twenty-first century, an influx of immigrants with higher levels of English, the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA), and the need to meet the demands of employers led to the CLB being used in higher-stakes context. The CLB, under the stewardship of the CCLB, were flexible enough to respond to these changing demands. The revised 2012 standard brings the increased rigour and validity that will enable its use to support significant decisions around immigration and citizenship.

As has been shown in this chapter, there are many recent tools and resources to support the use of the CLB 2012 in Canada. The tools mentioned here are only the ones in which the CCLB played a development role.

Tool development, teacher training, and professional development need to be ongoing to support teachers and assessors. However, language training is often one of the first things cut during economic downturns, which in turn impacts training of instructors. It also impacts instructor skill sets, which, for publicly funded programs including the CLB and PBLA, are not yet covered in TESL training programs to any great degree.

The CCLB, as an organization that depends on project-based funding, is extremely vulnerable to economic downturns: its ability to support the community of practice is often severely limited. With funding cuts in many areas, it is even more critical to have an organization like the CCLB to provide the integrity, capacity, accountability, and reliability needed to deliver support for both the National Assessment System and LINC programs across Canada. To maintain the integrity of the standard, there must be stable investment in it.

Canada cannot be complacent about the CLB. Their reputation in Canada and internationally is growing, but they are as well under pressure from other standards that are making inroads into Canada. There are many questions about their future use, and also many possibilities. It is possible that, in the future, the use of the CLB will be expanded: for pre-arrival language and employment preparation, in a global language training context, and for entry into higher education in Canada. One barrier to expansion is that there is currently no CLB-referenced test used for these purposes, although the Milestones could possibly be used for such purposes in the future. With changes in government, there is no clear focus on the importance of the standard in an evolving economic and political environment. This includes clarification around the ongoing role of the CLB within the immigration process, and how language training supports all successful settlement and integration efforts for newcomers.

What is next for the CLB and the CCLB? In the next few years, concentrated efforts should be aimed at supporting the strategic growth of the standard and the organization that supports its implementation. The standard must be maintained and monitored for appropriate use to ensure its rigour and validity. Research is needed on the applicability of the CLB to immigrant youth aged 14 to 18, possible use with Canada’s indigenous population, and their relevance internationally, so that their use may grow appropriately. Correlations with other standards and tests need to be conducted to provide consistent and reliable information to stakeholders and to ensure that the CLB are further nationally and internationally recognized, not just in the settlement language field but also in academic and workplace fields, as being valid, fair, and reliable for high-stakes purposes.

As the CLB attain their 20th anniversary in 2016, it is apparent that they have successfully evolved to meet current demands, but that they need nurturing to continue their growth in Canada and to meet future demands in Canada and internationally.

References

Bachman, Lyle F. 1990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Bachman, Lyle F., and Adrian Palmer. 1996. Language Testing in Practice: Designing and Developing Useful Language Tests. New York: Oxford University Press.

_____. 2010. Language Assessment Practice: Developing Language Assessments and Justifying Their Use in the Real World. New York: Oxford University Press.

Blakely, Gregg, and Dipna Singh. 2012. “Federal and Provincial Policy Initiatives. LINC and CLIC: Looking back, looking forward.” INSCAN Special Issue on Settlement Language Training: 7–11. Accessed March 10, 2016. http://www3.carleton.ca/cimss/inscan-e/v24_se.pdf.

Bournot-Trites, Monique, and Ross Barbour. 2012. Unpublished Report on Phases I and II of the Validation of the Canadian Language Benchmarks and Niveaux de Compétence Linguistique Canadiens. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks.

Bournot-Trites, Monique, Ross Barbour, Monika Jezak, Gail Stewart, and Daphné Blouin Carbonneau. 2015. Theoretical Framework for the CLB and NCLC. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks.

Celce-Murcia, Marianne, Zoltan Dörnyei, and Sarah Thurrell. 1995. “Communicative Competence: A Pedagogically Motivated Model with Content Specifications.” Issues in Applied Linguistics 6(2): 5–35.

Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. 2004. Summative Assessment Tasks for Canadian Language Benchmarks, Stage 1. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks.

_____. 2005. Relating Canadian Language Benchmarks to Essential Skills: A Comparative Framework. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks.

_____. 2007a. Prior learning and assessment checklist. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks.

_____. 2007b. Workplace Language Assessment Pre-Screener. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. Accessed March 1, 2016. http://www.language.ca.

_____. 2007c. Work Ready. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. Accessed March 1, 2016. http://www.language.ca.

_____. 2008. CLB 5-10 Exit Tasks. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks.

_____. 2009. Workplace Language Assessment Tool. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. Accessed March 1, 2016. http://www.language.ca.

_____. 2012. CLB Support Kit. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. Accessed March 1, 2016. http://www.language.ca.

_____. 2013. Trousse de soutien en français langue seconde. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. Accessed March 1, 2016. http://www.language.ca.

_____. 2014. Can Do Statements. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks.

_____. 2015. Annual Report. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. Accessed March 1, 2016. http://www.language.ca.

_____. 2016a. The Canadian Language Benchmarks. Accessed March 1, 2016. http://www.language.ca.

_____. 2016b. Can Do Statements for Employment. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. Accessed March 1, 2016. http://www.language.ca.

Citizenship and Immigration Canada. 2000. Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000: ESL for Literacy Learners. Ottawa: CIC and Government of Manitoba.

_____. 2013. National Language Placement and Progression Guidelines. Ottawa: Citizenship and Immigration Canada.

Citizenship and Immigration Canada, and Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. 2012. Canadian Language Benchmarks: English as a second language for adults. Ottawa: Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Accessed March 1, 2016. http://www.language.ca.

_____. 2014. Canadian Language Benchmarks: ESL for Adult Literacy Learners. Ottawa: CIC. Accessed March 1, 2016. http://www.language.ca.

Cohen, Carolyn, and Antonella Valeo. 2012. Enhancing Professionalism: A Framework for Post TESL Certificate Training, INSCAN Special Issue on Settlement Language Training: 35–38. Accessed March 10, 2016. http://www3.carleton.ca/cimss/inscan-e/v24_se.pdf.

Council of Europe. 2001. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Strasbourg: Language Policy Unit.

Farrell, Thomas S. 2012. Reflective Writing for Language Teachers. Frameworks for Writing Series. Sheffield, UK: Equinox Publishing. Accessed on March 10, 2016. http://www.teslcanadajournal.ca/index.php/tesl/article/view/1170/990.

Holmes, Tara. 2005. Integrating CLB assessment into your ESL classroom. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks.

Makosky, Luke. 2008. The Feasibility and Way Forward for a Standardized Exit Assessment and Test for Newcomers in LINC Training. Ottawa: Citizenship and Immigration Canada.

Nagy, Philip, and Gail Stewart. 2009. Research Study on Potential Approaches to Second Language Assessment. Ottawa: Citizenship and Immigration Canada.

Norton Peirce, Bonny, and Gail Stewart. 1997. “The Development of Canadian Language Benchmarks Assessment.” TESL Canada Journal 14(2): 17–31.

Pawlikowska-Smith, Grazyna. 2000. Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000: English as a Second Langauge for Adults. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks.

Pettis, Joanne. 2014. Portfolio Based Language Assessment (PBLA): Guide for Teachers and Programs. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks.

Rogers, Eleanor. 1993. “National working group on language benchmarks meets.” TESL Canada Bulletin: 1.

Smit, Pamela, and Paul Turcot. 2010. National Consultation on the Canadian Language Benchmarks 2000 and Niveaux de competence linguistique canadiens 2006: Final report. Ottawa: Citizenship and Immigration Canada.