1 Du Bois, The Negro, 155-56; J. E. Harris, Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora.

2 For a recent study of the demography of the slave trades in Africa, see Manning, Slavery and African Life.

3 For a good summary, see Daget, “Abolition of the Slave Trade.”

4 Hall, Social Control in Slave Plantation Societies, 131-35,150.

5 Sundiata, From Slaving to Neoslavery. For a good summary of African “contract” laborers during the nineteenth century, see Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 151-52.

6 For the Berlin Conference of 1885, see “Timeline of Slavery,” in Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery, ed. Finkelman and Miller, 2:981.

7 Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost, especially 281-83; Sundiata, Black Scandal.

8 Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 141.

1 Kitab tabakat al-uman, 36-37. Unless otherwise indicated this and all subsequent translations from French, Spanish, and Portuguese are by the author.

2 Niane, “Relationships and Exchanges,” 614-34 (quote on 616-17). For an enlightening discussion of the limitations of the available historical record of this trade, see Austen, “Trans-Saharan Slave Trade”; and Niane, “Mali and the Second Mandingo Expansion,” 119-23. For a discussion that ignores the early south Saharan thrust of the Almoravids and the impact of black African political and military leadership in Moorish Spain—a biased discussion of Almoravid rule relying heavily on Christian sources—see Fletcher, Moorish Spain, 105-18.

3 Niane, “Relationships and Exchanges,” 620.

4 Costa e Silva, A manilha e o libambo, 133.

5 Sevilla a comienzos del siglo XII, para. 56, pp. 98-100.

6 For their racist interpretations, see Hitte, History of the Arabs, 540-45; and Dozy, Spanish Islam, 702, 21-23.

7 I will always be grateful to Dra. Concepción Muedra, a Catalonian refugee from the Spanish Civil War living in Mexico, who introduced me to some of this fascinating literature when I studied with her in 1962-63 at Mexico City College (now the University of the Americas). She was reported to be the first woman who received a Ph.D. in history in Spain.

8 Codera, Decadencia y desaparición de los Almoravids en España, 190 - 217; Hulal al Mawsiyya, Colección de crónicas árabes, 95.

9 Niane, “Relationships and Exchanges,” 618.

10 Shakundi, Flogio del Islam español, 98.

11 For the obscure and plagiaristic origins of credit for rhythmic notation in music scores in early Renaissance Europe, see Maitland, Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2:100-102.

12 Sandoval, Naturaleza, 45.

13 Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery; Wood, Origins of American Slavery, 10.

14 Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida; Hanger, Bounded Lives, Bounded Places.

15 For scholarship combating these myths, see Hall, Social Control in Slave Plantation Societies, 96-107; Knight, Slave Society in Cuba during the Nineteenth Century; Rout, The African Experience in Spanish America; Helg, Our Rightful Share.

16 Manning, Slavery and African Life.

17 Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in America, 261. For a more nuanced discussion, which contradicts his own conclusion, see ibid., table I-1 (p. 9) and pp. 29-56, where he includes the British born in America in his total of 300,000 English immigrants.

18 For a stimulating discussion of state power and enslavement comparing Europe and Africa, see Inikori, “The Struggle against the Slave Trade.”

19 Eltis, “Europeans and the Rise and Fall of African Slavery in America”; Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in America, 1-28, 267-73 (quote on 4).

20 Davis, “Looking at Slavery from Broader Perspectives.”

21 Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana, 23, 25, 26.

22 Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World; Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in America.

23 Harms, River of Wealth, River of Sorrow, 148-53.

24 For medieval times, see Gomez, “Medieval Western Sudan.”

25 Moore, Travels into the Inland Parts of Africa.

26 Law, Ouidah, 149.

27 Northrup, “A Collection of Interviews Conducted in Southeastern Nigeria in 1972-1973.”

28 Cited in Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna, 52-53.

29 Thornton, “African Political Ethics and the Slave Trade.”

30 Boahen, “The States and Cultures of the Lower Guinea Coast,” 409.

31 Barry, “Senegambia from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century.”

32 Thornton, Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 4, 28.

33 M. A. Klein, “Senegambia.”

34 For a vivid description of the first Portuguese raid for slaves in Senegambia by the chronicler Gomez Eannes de Azurara, see Conrad, Children of Gold’s Fire, 5-11.

35 Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery.

36 Akinjogbin, Dahomey and Its Neighbours, 18,19.

37 Law, Ouidah, 50. Akinjogbin, Dahomey and Its Neighbours, 73-81, argues that Dahomey wanted to bring the Atlantic slave trade to an end. In The Slave Coast of West Africa, 300-308, Law contends that Dahomey was interested in protecting her own people but not other peoples from the Atlantic slave trade.

38 For the Dahomean conquest of the coast, see Akinjogbin, Dahomey and Its Neighbours, 64-100; Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa, 278-97.

39 Lovejoy, “Ethnic Designations of the Slave Trade,” 27, citing Oliveira.

40 See the detailed discussion in chapter 2.

41 For the importance of rum during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in Angola, see Miller, Way of Death, 466-67.

42 Niuelaut e P. Moortamer para o Conselho do Brasil, Maio de 1642, in Jadin, L‘Ancien Congo et l’Angola, 1639-1655, 1:294.

43 Curto, Alcool e escravos. For a shortened English version dealing only with Luanda and its hinterland, see Curto, Enslaving Spirits.

44 Calculated from Eltis et al., The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database.

45 Coughtry, Rhode Island and the African Slave Trade, 103-42.

46 Quoted in Brooks, Eurafricans in Western Africa, 307.

47 Inikori, “West Africa’s Seaborne Trade”; communication from Joseph E. Inikori, 2003.

48 Portuando Zuniga, Entre esclavosy libres de Cuba colonial, 44-57.

49 Costa e Silva, A manilha e o libambo, 816.

50 All these skills were found among African-born slaves in Louisiana. Hall, Louisiana Slave Database; Hall, Louisiana Free Database; Bowser, The African Slave in Colonial Peru, 125-46. For the skills Africans brought to early Brazil, see H. S. Klein, African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean, 42. For a discussion of African medical and herbal skills, see Galvin, “The Creation of a Creole Medicine Chest in Colonial South Carolina.”

51 Cateau and Carrington, Capitalism and Slavery Fifty Years Later.

52 Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England.

1 Moreno Fraginals, “Africa in Cuba.”

2 Aguirre Beltrán, La poblacion negra de Mexico; Lockhart, Spanish Peru, 173. For a summary for the French West Indies, see Debien, “Les origines des esclaves des Antilles” and “Les origines des esclaves des Antilles (conclusion).”

3 Palmer, Slaves of the White God.

4 Niane, “Introduction”; Talbi, “The Spread of Civilization in the Maghrib and Its Impact on Western Civilization.”

5 Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery; Thomas, The Slave Trade.

6 Inikori, “Unmeasured Hazards of the Atlantic Slave Trade.”

7 Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade, 268 (table 77); Inikori, “The Known, the Unknown, the Knowable and the Unknowable”; Inikori, “Africa in World History,” 82; Thomas, The Slave Trade, 809, 862.

8 Barry, “Senegambia from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century”; Moreno Fraginals, “Africa in Cuba”; Vila Vilar, “The Large-Scale Introduction of Africans into Veracruz and Cartagena.”

9 Eltis et al., The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database.

10 Eltis, Rise of African Slavery in America, 244-46; Law and Strickrodt, Ports of the Slave Trade.

11 Studer, La trata de negros; Garcia Florentino, Em costas negras, 23.

12 Barry, La Senegambie du XVe au XIXe siecle.

13 Brooks, Eurafricans in Western Africa, 293-94.

14 Aguirre Beltrán, La poblacion negra de Mexico, 119.

15 Armah et al., “Slaves from the Windward Coast”; Debien, Les esclaves aux Antilles françaises, 45, 46, 67.

16 Geggus, “Sex Ratio, Age, and Ethnicity”; Vanony-Frisch, Les esclaves de la Guadeloupe, 32.

17 Higman, Slave Populations of the British Caribbean.

18 Brooks, The Kru Mariners.

19 Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks; Littlefield, Rice and Slaves; Chambers, Jamaican Runaways.

20 Reis, “Ethnic Politics among Africans in Nineteenth-Century Bahia.”

21 Howard, Changing History, 27, 37, 39, 74.

22 For some exceptionally useful sacramental records with rich information about African ethnic designations, see Tardieu, “Origins of the Slaves in the Lima Region in Peru.”

23 Soares, Devotos da cor, 80, 83-84.

24 Buhnen, “Ethnic Origins of Peruvian Slaves”; Brooks, Eurafricans in Western Africa, 167.

25 Soares, Devotos da cor, 78, 92-93, 201-30.

26 Lovejoy, “Ethnic Designations of the Slave Trade.” For a careful, sophisticated discussion of the various meanings of racial and ethnic designations of slaves in Brazilian documents, see Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 3-28.

27 Medeiros, “Moçambicanizaçao dos escravos saidos pelos portos de Moçambique” ; Alpers, “ ‘Mocambiques’ in Brazil.”

28 African Ethnonyms and Toponyms. For a discussion of their recent study of recaptives in Sierra Leone and Havana, see Eltis and Nwokeji, “The Roots of the African Diaspora,” and “Characteristics of Captives Leaving the Cameroons for the Americas, 1822-1837.”

29 Hall, Louisiana Slave Database. Recoded in the SPSS.sav file supplied in the CD publication and the website as the recoded field AFREQ.

30 Records of the Superior Council of Louisiana, 1738:04:11, 1743:09:09:06, Louisiana Historical Center, New Orleans; Original Acts Pointe Coupée Parish, December 6,1802, New Roads, La. This information can also be found in the comments fields of the records under these dates and places in Hall, Louisiana Slave Database.

31 An inappropriate term used throughout Mullin, Africa in America.

32 For conflicts among children of co-wives, see Niane, Sundiata. For the Segu “Bambara” state, see Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana, 42-45. For West Central Africa, see Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna, 139-40; and Miller, Kings and Kinsmen, 128-73.

33 Costa e Silva, A manilha e o libambo, 153.

34 Calculated from Eltis et al., The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database.

35 Geggus, “Sex Ratio, Age, and Ethnicity.” For the Kongo identity of slaves described in South Carolina documents as “Angola,” see Thornton, “African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion.” Calculated from Hall, Louisiana Slave Database.

36 Gomez, “African Identity and Slavery in America.”

37 Calculated by Chambers from his Jamaican Runaways.

38 Harms, River of Wealth, River of Sorrow, 111-42.

39 Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro.

40 Le Page du Pratz, Histoire de la Louisiane, 1:342-45.

41 Acosta Saignes, Vida de los esclavos negros en Venezuela, 152-53.

42 Inikori, “West Africa’s Seaborne Trade.”

43 Niane, “Introduction”; Niane, “Relationship and Exchanges among the Dif ferent Regions.”

44 Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.

45 Procedure criminelle contre la nommée Celeste de Jacob Beam et le nommé Urbin nègre (Criminal procedures against the named Celeste of Jacob Beam and the named black man Urbin), Original Acts Opelousas Post, March through June 1802, Louisiana State Archives, Baton Rouge.

46 Diouf, Servants of Allah, 60, 78, 87,180.

47 Gomez, “African Identity and Slavery in America.”

48 Mintz and Price, An Anthropological Approach to the Afro-American Past.

49 Palmié, “Ethnogenetic Processes and Cultural Transfer.”

50 For relational databases published on CDs and websites and in publications using unpublished databases, see the database section of the bibliography.

51 Twelfth Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, October 18, 2002. The report blames multinational corporations from several countries, including the United States, for robbing billions of dollars of natural resources from this country while provoking genocidal warfare there. Two and a half million lives were lost there over the past few years.

52 Diop, “A Methodology for the Study of Migrations.”

53 Barry, La Senegambie du XVieme au XIXieme siecle, 35.

54 These records can be recoded easily and included among Africans of unknown ethnicities, or their ethnicities can be extrapolated from their names if the user of the Louisiana Slave Database so wishes; Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 454.

55 Communication from Dr. Ibrahima Seck, November 1999.

56 Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana, 359-61.

57 Communication from David Geggus.

1 For the first discussion of the wave pattern in transatlantic slave trade voyages, see Chambers, “Eboe, Kongo, Mandingo,” 2, 5,11,13. For a discussion published several years later, see Eltis, Richardson, and Behrendt, “Patterns in the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 1662-1867.” For a recently published study, see E. M. G. Harris, The History of Human Populations, 2:93-182,305-408.

2 Debien, Les esclaves aux Antilles françaises, 59.

3 Higman, Slave Populations of the British Caribbean, 127.

4 Pierson, Black Yankees, cited in Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 26- 27.

5 Costa e Silva, A manilha e o libambo. 318.

6 Ibid., 320-21; Brooks, Eurafricans in Western Africa,

7 Menard and Schwartz, “Why African Slavery?”.

8 For the early lançados in the Cape Verde Islands and Upper Guinea, see Costa e Silva, A manilha e libambo, 229-80. For a study of the Afro-Portuguese in Angola during later centuries, see Miller, Way of Death, 245-83.

9 Brooks, Eurafricans in Western Africa, 89-93; Costa e Silva, A manilha e o libambo, 244.

10 Heywood, “Portuguese into African.”

11 Merlet, Autour du Loango, 9; Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in America, 188.

12 Richardson, “Shipboard Revolts.”

13 Costa e Silva, A manilha e o libambo, 153, 2o7-8, 269; Alvarez, Ethiopia Minor, cited in Brooks, Eurafricans in Western Africa, 75. For continued resistance to the slave trade in Upper Guinea, see Rashid, “ A Devotion to Liberty at Any Price,’ ” and Hawthorne, “Strategies of the Decentralized.”

14 Oriji, “Igboland, Slavery, and the Drums of War,” 129.

15 Elton and McLeod, “English Consuls at Mozambique during the 185os and 1870s,” cited in Alpers, Ivory and Slaves, 223-27.

16 For a collection of essays about resistance to slavery and the slave trade in Africa, see Diouf, Fighting the Slave Trade.

17 For the role of pawnship in credit, see Lovejoy and Richardson, “ ‘This Horrid Holy.‘ ”

18 Florentino, Em costas negra, 240.

19 Verger, Trade Relations between the Bight of Benin and Bahia.

20 Brooks, Landlords and Strangers, 231-32.

21 Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana, 124.

22 R. K. Kent, “Madagascar and the Islands of the Indian Ocean.” 864. A number of voyages from Madagascar to Virginia were omitted from The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database. See Donnan, Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America, 4:183-85,188-204.

23 Littlefield, Rice and Slaves.

24 For a good summary of the literature about the African origins of techniques of rice cultivation, including emphasis on Madagascar during the early stages of rice cultivation in America, see Gomez, Exchanging our Country Marks, 40-41. For a fine, detailed study of the transfer of African techniques of rice cultivation to America but which largely discounts Madagascar, see Carney, Black Rice. For an argument discounting the influence of African technology on rice cultivation in America, see Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 182-83.

25 Estimated numbers and percentages of slaves landed would be smaller than in voyages coming from other African coasts. Voyages from Upper Guinea generally involved smaller ships bringing fewer Africans.

26 Costa e Silva, A manilha e o libambo, 816.

27 Portuando Zuniga, Entre esclavosy libres de Cuba colonial, 44-57.

28 Records of the Superior Council of Louisiana, October 7, 1730, Document no. 1, Louisiana Historical Center, New Orleans. This slave had arrived on the Duc de Noailles on March 15, 728.

29 Le Page du Pratz, Histoire de la Louisiane, 1:333-34.

30 Translated in Hall, Social Control in Slave Plantation Societies, 20-21.

31 Littlefield, Rice and Slaves, 115-73.

32 Palmer, Human Cargoes, 29, 97, 99 (table 9).

33 Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in America, 224-57 (quote on 244).

34 Hall, “Myths about Creole Culture in Louisiana”; Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana, 58,179,180, 284; Walsh, “The Chesapeake Slave Trade.”

35 Hall, “In Search of the Invisible Senegambians.”

36 Records of the Superior Council of Louisiana, May 6 and May 10,1768, contract between Evan Jones of Pensacola and Durand Brothers; declaration by Captain Peter Hill. Records of the Superior Council of Louisiana, 1768.o5.10.02, Louisiana Historical Center, New Orleans.

37 LaChance, “Politics of Fear.”

38 Papeles Procedentes de Cuba, December 31,1786, Legajo 575, folio 89, Archivo General de Indias, Seville, Spain.

39 Papeles Procedentes de Cuba, January 24,1793, Comercio de negros, Legajo 101, folio 572, Archivo General de Indias, Seville, Spain.

40 Calculated from Hall, Louisiana Slave Database.

41 LaChance, “Politics of Fear.” Prohibition of the import of slaves to Louisiana was, indeed, enforced, as reflected in the growing mean ages and the evening-out of gender balances among slaves in Louisiana during the 1790s. Calculated from Hall, Louisiana Slave Database.

42 Calculated from Hall, Louisiana Slave Database, and Eltis et al., The TransAtlantic Slave Trade Database.

43 Lovejoy and Richardson, “ ‘This Horrid Holy.’ ”

1 For an excellent discussion of the regional terminology used in the early Portuguese chronicles of voyages down the West African coast during the fifteenth century, see Soares, Devotos da cor, 37-62.

2 Thomas, The Slave Trade, 174.

3 Records of the Superior Council of Louisiana, April 24, 737, contract between Jacques Coustillas and George Amelot, New Orleans, April 24, 737, Louisiana Historical Center, New Orleans.

4 Rodney, A History of the Upper Guinea Coast. Hair, “Ethnolinguistic Continuity on the Guinea Coast,” argues for the stability of ethnicities from early contact with Europeans to the present day. But he recognizes that his argument does not preclude cultural and linguistic interpenetration among these peoples. Barry, Senegambia and the Atlantic Slave Trade, discusses the peaceful interactions and inter-penetrations among ethnicities in Greater Senegambia.

5 Buhnen, “Ethnic Origins of Peruvian Slaves.”

6 Elbl, “The Volume of Early Atlantic Slave Trade.”

7 Franco, Negros, mulatos y la nacion dominicana, 5-61.

8 Brooks, Landlords and Strangers, 238-40.

9 Costa e Silva, A manilha e o libambo, 788-89.

10 Miller, Way of Death, 322, 493, 503, 574. if. For the best recent summary of the African coastal origin of enslaved Africans brought to Spanish America between 1533 and 1580, see Castillo Mathieu, Esclavos negros en Cartagena, 23-38.

12 Vila Vilar, Hispanoamerica y el comercio de esclavos, 273-99.

13 Curtin, “Remarks”; Vila Vilar, “The Large-Scale Introduction of Africans into Veracruz and Cartagena.”

14 Franco, Negros, mulatos y la nacion dominicana, 5-61.

15 Quoted in Tardieu, “Origins of the Slaves in the Lima Region,” 51-52.

16 Vila Vilar, Hispanoamerica y el comercio de esclavos.

17 Brooks, Eurafricans in Western Africa, 76.

18 Vila Vilar, Hispanoamerica y el comercio de esclavos, 122-3; Crespo, Esclavos negros en Bolivia, 36; Mellafe, La introduccion de la esclavitud negra en Chile, 240-49.

19 Bowser, The African Slave in Colonial Peru, 37.

20 Vila Vilar, Hispanoamerica y el comercio de esclavos, 221-22.

21 Buhnen, “Ethnic Origins of Peruvian Slaves.” For an excellent discussion of rice cultivation in Upper Guinea, see Rodney, A History of the Upper Guinea Coast, 20-22.

22 Sandoval, De instauranda Aethiopum salute, 110-11.

23 Boulegue, Les luso-africains de Senegambie, 67-68; Costa e Silva, A manilha e o libambo, 243-44.

24 Brooks, Eurafricans in Western Africa, 108-9.

25 Creel, “A Peculiar People”; Walsh, “The Chesapeake Slave Trade.”

26 Walsh, From Calabar to Carter’s Grove, 55.

27 Pelletan, Memoire sur la colonie du Senegal, 93-94; Brooks, Eurafricans in Western Africa, 292.

28 Pelletan, Memoire sur la colonie du Senegal, 93-94.

29 Higman, Slave Populations of the British Caribbean, 442-58 (tables S3.1-3.6).

30 Vydrine, Manding-English Dictionary, 77-79. In his enlightening discussion of various interpretations of the Mande language group and mutual intelligibility among various ethnicities, Vydrine criticizes the prevailing “underestimation of closeness of Mande languages” (7-11). See also Bazin, “Guerre et servitude a Segou.”

31 Curtin, Economic Change in Pre-colonial Africa, 179.

32 Biloxi on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and Balize at the mouth of the Mississippi River. Caron, “ ‘Of a Nation Which Others Do Not Understand.’ ”

33 For various peoples identified as “Bambara” in Senegal, see Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana, 42-44, 112, 288-89; for the French transatlantic slave trade to Louisiana, see ibid., 35 (fig. 2), 60 (table 2), 381-99.

34 Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana, 112; for the Spanish period, see 400-406. Subsequent studies of patterns of the Atlantic slave trade in Senegambia during the i72os indicate that this figure was probably too low. See Searing, WestAfrican Slavery and Atlantic Commerce.

35 Lamiral, L’Affrique et le peuple affriquain, 184.

36 Records of the Superior Council of Louisiana: 1764.09.05.02, Confrontation between nègre Louis dit Foy and negresse Comba; 1764.09.10.01, Interrogation under Torture of Louis dit Foy by Judge Foucault; 1764.09.04.01, Testimony of Comba, slave of the Capuchins.

37 Original Acts Avoyelles Parish, June 8, 1799, document no. 331, Avoyelles Parish, Marksville, La. Recorded in Hall, Louisiana Slave Database.

1 Boahen, “The States and Cultures of the Lower Guinean Coast.”

2 Wondji, “The States and Cultures of the Upper Guinea Coast,” 377.

3 Boahen, “The States and Cultures of the Lower Guinean Coast,” 401 (fig. 14.1).

4 Ryder, Benin and the Europeans, 2.

5 Costa e Silva, A manilha e o libambo, 344.

6 Law, The Slave Coast, 9.

7 Soares, Devotos da cor, 80.

8 David Northrup, “Igbo and Myth Igbo.”

9 Vydrine, Manding English Dictionary.

10 For a discussion of language use, mutual intelligibility, and designations of languages spoken on the Slave Coast, see Law, The Slave Coast, a1-a3.

11 Soares, Devotos da cor, 78, 91-93, 201-3°. “Mahi” was spelled “Maki” in Brazil.

12 Northrup, “Igbo and Myth Igbo.”

13 Wax, “Preferences for Slaves in Colonial America.”

14 Calculated from The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database.

15 Michael A. Gomez has reported that among 14,167 enslaved persons found listed in documents in St. Domingue/Haiti in 1796 and 1797 by Gabriel Debien, 6,188 were Africans with ethnicity information recorded, some of whom could be divided into the following categories: Kongo (1,651), Nago (736), Arada (544), Igbo (519), “Bambara” (24), Hausa (124), “Senegals” (probably Wolof, 95), Susu (67), “Poulards” (26), Mandinka (26), “Malles” (3). Gomez, “African Identity and Slavery in America.”

16 E. M. G. Harris, The History of Human Populations, 2:128.

17 For the state of denial about the substantial Kongo presence in Cuba, see Landers, “Central African Presence in Spanish Maroon Communities.” For the Nago-Yoruba in Brazil, see Reis, “Ethnic Politics among Africans in Nineteenth-Century Bahia.”

18 According to Law, those known today in Africa as being of Mina ethnicity are located near the mouth of the Mono River and are speakers of one of the Gbe languages, although they trace their ancestry to Akan-speaking boatmen who emigrated from the Gold Coast during the seventeenth century. See Law, The Slave Coast, 25-26.

19 Sandoval, Un tratado sobre la esclavitud (1627 ed.), 122-23, 39, 413; Sandoval, Naturaleza (1647 ed.), 29, 58-59.

20 Greene, “Cultural Zones in the Era of the Slave Trade.”

21 Law, The Slave Coast, 228-29.

22 Costa e Silva, A manilha e o libambo, 808-10.

23 Law, The Slave Coast, 228; Oldendorp, History of the Mission of the Evangelical Brethren, 162-65.

24 Awoonor, Guardians of the Sacred Word, i3. I thank Ibrahima Seck for calling this citation to my attention. The Rand McNally New Millennium World Atlas Deluxe, a CD-ROM publication, lists Mina and Ewe as distinct ethnicities speaking different languages in Togo.

25 Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des negres, 7,10. Robin Law believes, however, that the “Mina Coast” as understood in Brazil did, in fact, include parts of the Gold Coast as well as the Slave Coast; email from Robin Law, June 25, 2000.

26 Ortiz, Los negros esclavos, 53.

27 Ibid., 33, 35.

28 Howard, Afro-Cuban Cabildos, 27, 37, 39, 74.

29 Aguirre Beltran, La poblacion negra de Mexico, 124.

30 Ibid., 127. Curtin, Atlantic Slave Trade, 185-86, 208-9; email from Robin Law, August 4,2004.

31 Rodrigues, Os Africanos no Brasil, 41-42. Oldendorp, History of the Mission of the Fvangelical Brethren, 162-65.

32 Gutierrez Azopardo, Historia del negro en Colombia, 18. This historian interprets Mina as Africans from the Gold Coast coming through the San Jorge de Mina post.

33 Diaz Lopez. Oro, sociedad y economia, 194-95.

34 Castillo Mathieu, Esclavos negros en Cartagena, 110. The author of this book describes the Mina as Akan speakers coming from the Gold Coast.

35 Arrazola, Palenque, 194-95; Landers, “Cimarron Ethnicity and Cultural Adaptation in the Spanish Domains,” 38-42.

36 Blanco, Los negros y la esclavitud, 165-68.

37 For a full discussion of both of these conspiracies, see Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana, 316-74.

38 For various currencies used, formulas for conversion to common denominator prices, and tables showing mean prices by ethnicity and gender over time, see the appendix.

39 Calculated from Hall, Louisiana Slave Database.

40 Howard, Changing History, 27, 37, 39, 74; the excerpt from this document is translated by Howard on p. 27.

41 Acosta Saignes, Vida de los esclavos negros en Tlenezuela, 152-53.

42 Law, The Slave Coast, 189.

43 Hair, “An Ethnolinguistic Inventory of the Lower Guinea Coast,” 230.

44 Peixoto, Obra nova de lingua geral de Mina; Yai, “Texts of Enslavement.”

45 The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database.

46 Eltis, Lovejoy, and Richardson, “Slave Trading Ports.”

47 Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 78-83, 149, 297, 355-61, and 373-76.

48 Boxer, The Golden Age of Brazil, 165.

49 Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des negres, 7,10; Pereira, A Casa das Minas.

50 Boxer, Golden Age of Brazil, 175-76.

51 Manning, Slavery, Colonialism, and Economic Growth In Dahomey, 30,31. For an interpretation emphasizing inland rather than coastal populations, see Inikori, “Sources of Supply for the Atlantic Slave Exports.”

1 Afigbo, Ropes of Sand, 1-30, 77-79.

2 Alagoa, “Fon and Yoruba,” 447-48.

3 Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 38, quoting Adams, Sketches Taken during Ten Years Voyages to Africa between the Years 1786 and l800.

4 Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 30.

5 For example, see Hall, “African Women in Colonial Louisiana.”

6 Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 19-46; Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 59-60.

7 Dike and Ekejiuba, The Aro of South-eastern Nigeria, 326-27.

8 Inikori, “The Development of Entrepreneurship in Africa,” 78 n. 44.

9 Brown, “From the Tongues of Africa,” 49-50.

10 Austen and Derrick, Middlemen of the Cameroons Rivers, 5-47.

11 Northrup, “Igbo and Myth Igbo.”

12 Inikori, “Sources of Supply for the Atlantic Slave Exports.”

13 Lovejoy and Richardson, “ ‘This Horrid Holy.’ ”

14 Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 46.

15 Brown, “From the Tongues of Africa,” 49-50.

16 Statistics are from the database constructed and used for Bergad, Iglesias Garcia, and Barcia, The Cuban Slave Market. I am grateful to Fe Iglesias for giving me a copy of this database.

17 Calculated from Geggus, “Sex Ratio, Age, and Ethnicity.”

18 Koelle, Polyglotta Africana, 7-8.

19 Northrup, Africa’s Discovery of Europe, 131.

20 This documentation can be found in the original 1627 and 1647 editions of the Sandoval book and the facsimile publication of the 1627 edition.

21 Dike, Trade and Politics in Nigeria, 19-46.

22 Northrup, Trade without Rulers, 79-80.

23 Niane, “Relationships and Exchanges.”

24 Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks; Walsh, From Calabar to Carter’s Grove; Chambers, “ ‘My Own Nation’ ”; Chambers, “The Significance of Igbo in the Bight of Biafra Slave Trade.”

25 Communication from David Geggus, September 2002.

26 Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade, 245 (table 71).

27 For a review of the literature citing negative perceptions about the Igbo, see Gomez, “A Quality of Anguish: The Igbo Response to Enslavement in America.” Walsh, From Calabar to Carter’s Grove, 79-80.

28 Palmer, Human Cargoes, 29.

29 Mullin, Africa in America, 26.

30 Littlefield, Rice and Slaves, 20, 26, 72-73.

31 Original Acts Pointe Coupee Parish, May, 1787, document no. 1571, vente d‘esclave, Monsanto a LeDoux, New Roads, La.

32 Hall, “In Search of the Invisible Senegambians.”

33 Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone. For a much earlier application of this methodology to slavery in America, see Hall, Social Control in Slave Plantation Societies.

34 Mullin, Africa in America, 23.

35 Dike, Trade and Politics in Nigeria, 45-46.

1 Heywood, Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora, 1-20.

2 J. E. Harris, Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora.

3 Inikori, “Slavery in Africa and the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.” Ngou-Mve, El Africa bantú en la colonizacion en Mexico; Thornton, The Kingdom of Kongo, 22.

4 Vansina, Paths in the Rainforests, 200-201.

5 Costa e Silva, A manilha e o libambo, 369.

6 Miller, “Lineages, Ideology, and the History of Slavery in Western Central Africa,” 41.

7 Thornton, The Kingdom of Kongo. 74-96; Thornton, “African Political Ethics and the Slave Trade.”

8 Ngou-Mve, El Africa bantú en la colonizaci6n de Mexico, 62-65.

9 Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, no.

10 Miller, “Central Africa during the Era of the Slave Trade,” 64-69.

11 Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna, 129-33.

12 For patterns over time and place, see Thornton, “Religious and Ceremonial Life in the Kongo and Mbundu Area,” and Heywood, “Portuguese into African.” For a discussion of the brief and frustrating career of Christian missionaries on the Loango Coast, see Martin, The External Trade of the Loango Coast, 48.

13 Martin, The External Trade of the Loango Coast, 56, 79, 80,118.

14 Miller, Way of Death.

15 Richardson, “Shipboard Revolts.”

16 Vansina, foreword to Central Africa and Cultural Formations, xi, xv; Vansina, Paths in the Rainforests.

17 Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna, 139-40.

18 Thornton, The Kingdom of Kongo, 6-15.

19 Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna, 37-69; Ngou-Mve, El Africa bantú en la colonizacion de Mexico, 58, 59.

20 Alpers, Ivory and Slaves, 209.

21 Elton and McLeod, “English Consuls at Mozambique during the 1850s and 1870s,” cited in Alpers, Ivory and Slaves, 223-27.

22 Ngou-Mve, El Africa bantú en la colonizacion de Mexico.

23 Caceres Gomez, Negros, mulatos, esclavos y libertos.

24 Duncan and Melendez, El negro en Costa Rica, 19; Portuando Zuniga, Entre esclavos y libres de Cuba colonial, 44-57.

25 Vila Vilar, Hispanoamirica y el comercio de esclavos, 122-23; Crespo R., Esclavos negros en Bolivia, 36.

26 Hilton, The Kingdom of Kongo, i48, i69. For a detailed chronology of West Central Africa from the thirteenth century through 1887, see Merlet, Autour du Loango, 133-53.

27 For the most recent, best informed discussion of the coastal origin of enslaved Africans brought to the United States, including to Louisiana, see Gomez, Exchanging our Country Marks, 28, 29 (tables 2.6, 2.7).

28 Calculated from Hall, Louisiana Slave Database.

29 Daget, “The Abolition of the Slave Trade,” 67.

30 Dumont, Etre patriotique sous les tropiques.

31 Taylor, “The Foreign Slave Trade in Louisiana after 1808”; Hendrix, “The Efforts to Reopen the African Slave Trade in Louisiana.”

32 For the Caribbean, see Schuler, Alas, Alas Kongo.

1 Reis, “Ethnic Politics among Africans in Nineteenth-Century Bahia.”

2 Individual biographies are coming to the fore, some of them supported by the work of the Harriet Tubman Resource Centre directed by Paul E. Lovejoy at York University in Toronto, Canada. For a fine recent study, see Law and Lovejoy, The Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua. For a good summary of accounts by other enslaved Africans, see Northrup, Africa’s Discovery of Europe, 107-15.

3 A questionable methodology used in Northrup, Africa’s Discovery of Europe, 122-35.

4 Northrup, “Igbo and Myth Igbo,” 9.

5 Eltis and Nwokeji, “The Roots of the African Diaspora.”

6 Geggus, “Sugar and Coffee Cultivation.”

7 For an enlightening discussion of the ethnic denomination Kongo and of other West Central Africans in the French West Indies, including the Mondongue, see Debien, Les esclaves aux Antilles françaises, 41, 49-52.

8 Bastide, Les Ameriques noires.

9 Geggus, “The French Slave Trade”; Laguerre, Tloudou and Politics in Haiti.

10 Vanhee, “Central African Popular Christianity.”

11 Reis, “Ethnic Politics among Africans in Nineteenth-Century Bahia.”

12 Sandoval, De instauranda Aethiopum salute, 91, 335.

13 Brooks, Eurafricans in Western Africa, 228.

14 For a synopsis of recently studied lists of slaves in Brazil giving African ethnic designations, see Lovejoy, “Ethnic Designations of the Slave Trade,” 26-29 (tables 1.5-1.8).

1 Hall, Louisiana Slave Database. For details, see the entry in the bibliography under “Published Databases.”

2 Parsons Collection, September 14,1735, Edict of Louis XV, 3D102, mislabeled, University of Texas Library, Austin.

3 Records of the Superior Council of Louisiana, 1741:11:23:01, Louisiana Historical Center, New Orleans.

4 Hurson to the Ministry of the Colonies, September,1752, in Collection Moreau de St.-Mery, Ser. F3 90, fols. 70-71, Archives d’Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence, France.

5 . Records of the Superior Council of Louisiana, various documents showing comparable prices: 1767.03.27.01, 1767.04.02.01, 1767.09.14.02, 1767.08.22.02, 1767.01.22.01,1767.02.09.01,1768.05.18.03, 769.01.18.03, 769.05.01.08, 769.07.15.01, Louisiana Historical Center, New Orleans.

6 Ibid., 1767.07.07.04.

7 Ibid., 1767.02.04.ül.