The following abbreviations appear in the notes:
1. Very few in-depth works on St. Malo exist, but Maria F. Espina’s Filipinos in Louisiana (New Orleans: A. F. Lordes and Sons, 1983) provides an overview of not only Malo but also the Filipino dry shrimp industry that later developed in Louisiana. The year the settlement was originally established is still in dispute, with historian Malcolm Churchill discovering that all references to the earliest days of St. Malo date to one newspaper article from 1937 that provides no source for the 1765 date provided. See Malcolm Churchill, “Louisiana History and Early Filipino Settlement: Searching for the Story,” Bulletin of the American Historical Collection 27 (1999): 25–32.
2. Leslie Bow, Partly Colored: Asian Americans and Racial Anomaly in the Segregated South (New York: NYU Press, 2011), 11.
3. See William Wei, The Asian American Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993); Daryl Maeda, Chains of Babylon: The Rise of Asian America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009); Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993); and Moon-Ho Jung, The Rising Tide of Color: Race, State Violence, and Radical Movements across the Pacific (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2015), for more on Asian American activism more generally.
4. See Cindy I-Fen Cheng, Citizens of Asian America: Democracy and Race during the Cold War (New York: NYU Press, 2013); Randall Kennedy, Interracial Intimacies: Sex, Marriage, Identity, and Adoption (New York: Vintage, 2004); and Juan F. Perea, “Ethnicity and the Constitution: Beyond the Black and White Binary Constitution,” William and Mary Law Review 36 (1995): 571–611, for more discussions on the experiences of different racial and ethnic groups with a black/white legal framework.
5. Bow, Partly Colored, 8. See also Robert Seto Quan’s Lotus among the Magnolias (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007); James W. Loewen, The Mississippi Chinese: Between Black and White (Long Grove, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1988); John Jung, Chopsticks in the Land of Cotton: Lives of Mississippi Delta Chinese Grocers (New York: Yin and Yang Press, 2011); and Lucy M. Cohen, Chinese in the Post–Civil War South: A People without a History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1999), for more on Chinese in the Mississippi Delta (and the South more generally) and racial, ethnic, and cultural identity.
6. Loewen, Mississippi Chinese, 23.
7. See Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (New York: Routledge, 1994), for more on the foundations of critical race theory and race as a social construction.
8. See Angelo N. Ancheta, Race, Rights, and the Asian American Experience (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998); Mari J. Matsuda, Charles R. Lawrence III, Richard Delgado, and Kimberlè Williams Crenshaw, Words That Wound: Critical Race Theory, Assaultive Speech, and the First Amendment (New York: Westview Press, 1993); and Kennedy, Interracial Intimacies.
9. See Denise Bates, The Other Movement: Indian Rights and Civil Rights in the Deep South (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012), for more on Native Americans and southern civil rights history. Julie M. Weise’s Corazón de Dixie: Mexicanos in the U.S. South since 1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015) examines Mexican migrants and adaptations and challenges to southern society. Brian D. Behnken’s Fighting Their Own Battles: Mexican Americans, African Americans, and the Struggle for Civil Rights in Texas (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014) also adds nuance to the study of the civil rights movement in the South during the twentieth century.
10. Lisa Lowe, Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 5. See also Krystyn Moon’s Yellowface: Creating the Chinese in American Popular Music and Culture (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2004) for more on Asians and culture in the United States.
11. Allen C. Guezlo, Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Douglas R. Egerton, The Wars of Reconstruction: The Brief, Violent History of America’s Most Progressive Era (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2014); Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution (New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2002); George A. Rutherglen, Civil Rights in the Shadow of Slavery: The Constitution, Common Law, and the Civil Rights Act of 1868 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).
12. See Michael Les Benedict, A Compromise of Principle: Congressional Republicans and Reconstruction, 1863–1869 (New York: Norton 1974), and George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007).
13. See Edward L. Ayers, The Promise of the New South: Life after Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
14. See Douglas A. Backmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (New York: Anchor, 2009), and Heather Cox Richardson, The Death of Reconstruction: Race, Labor, and Politics in the Post–Civil War North (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004).
15. Moon-Ho Jung, Coolies and Cane: Race, Labor, and Sugar in the Age of Emancipation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 37–38.
16. See John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York before Chinatown: Orientalism and the Shaping of American Culture, 1776–1882 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Richard Steven Street, Beasts of the Field: A Narrative History of California Farmworkers, 1769–1913 (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2004); Madeline Y. Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home: Transnationalism and Migration between the United States and South China (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2000); Jean Pfaelzer, Driven Out: The Forgotten War against Chinese Americans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); and Jung, Coolies and Cane, 9–17.
17. Richardson, Death of Reconstruction, 57–62.
18. Jung, Coolies and Cane, 26–37.
19. “Chinese Labor Convention,” Daily Alta California, July 15, 1869, 2.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Jung, Coolies and Cane, 1–5.
24. “Sambo’s Successor: Arrival of 250 Chinamen at New Orleans—Queer Scenes and Incidents,” Daily Alta California, January 30, 1870, 2.
25. Ibid. See also Lucy Cohen, “George W. Gift: Chinese Labor Agent in the Post–Civil War South,” in Chinese America: History and Perspectives (Brisbane, Calif.: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1995), 157–59.
26. See Carl Moneyhon, Arkansas and the New South, 1874–1929 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1997), and William A. Russ, “The Attempt to Create a Republican Party in Arkansas during Reconstruction,” Arkansas Historical Quarterly 1 (September 1942): 206–22.
27. Powell Clayton, The Aftermath of the Civil War in Arkansas (New York: Neale Publishing Company, 1915), 207.
28. Ibid., 211.
29. Ibid.
30. Qtd. in. ibid., 207.
31. Qtd. in ibid., 207–8.
32. Qtd. in ibid., 208.
33. Qtd. in ibid., 207.
34. Ibid. 208.
35. Qtd. in ibid., 213–14. See also Shih-shan Henry Tsai, “Chinese in Arkansas,” Amerasia Journal 8 (1981): 1–18.
36. Clayton, Aftermath, 214; Tsai, “Chinese in Arkansas,” 12; Jung, Coolies and Cane, 204–7.
37. Clayton, Aftermath, 215.
38. Jung, Coolies and Cane, 221–25; Pfaelzer, Driven Out, 54, 94, 133–49, 335. See also Erika Lee, At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigrants during the Exclusion Era, 1882–1943 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), and Lucy E. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995).
39. John Sharp Williams, “Speeches of . . . John S. Williams, of Mississippi, in the House of Representatives, Monday, March 31, 1902; Chinese problem on the Pacific; the Negro problem in the South; race problems . . . ,” 2, 324.15/W675s c., Mississippi State Archives, Jackson.
40. Ibid.
41. Tsai, “Chinese in Arkansas,” 8–10.
42. Khyati Y. Joshi and Jigna Desai, “Discrepancies in Dixie,” in Asian Americans in Dixie: Race and Migration in the South, ed. Khyati Y. Joshi and Jigna Desai (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2013), 4.
1. Him Mark Lai, “Lue Gim Gong: Wonder Grower,” East/West (1973): 5. See also Virginia Aronson, Gift of the Unicorn: The Story of Lue Gim Gong, Florida’s Citrus Wizard (Sarasota: Pineapple Press, 2002).
2. Lai, “Lue Gim Gong,” 5–6.
3. Moon-Ho Jung, Coolies and Cane: Race, Labor, and Sugar in the Age of Emancipation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 5–12; Heather Cox Richardson, The Death of Reconstruction: Race, Labor, and Politics in the Post–Civil War North (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004). See also Lucy M. Cohen, Chinese in the Post–Civil War South: A People without a History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1999), and Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York: Little, Brown, 1998), for an overview of both the early Japanese and Chinese immigrant experiences in different regions of the United States.
4. See Khyati Y. Joshi and Jigna Desai, eds., Asian Americans in Dixie: Race and Migration in the South (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2013), and Krystyn Moon, Yellowface: Creating the Chinese in American Popular Music and Culture (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2004), for a more detailed and interesting discussion of Chinese stereotypes.
5. Eiichiro Azuma, Between Two Empires: Race, History, and Transnationalism in Japanese America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 27.
6. Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 26–28.
7. “Pacific Coast Is Excited over Japanese,” Saint Landry Clarion, February 19, 1921, 3.
8. See Stephanie Hinnershitz, “Demanding an Adequate Solution: The American Legion, the Immigration Act of 1924, and the Politics of Exclusion,” Immigrants and Minorities 33 (September 2015): 1–21.
9. Azuma, Between Two Empires, 22–31.
10. Lawson B. Babineaux, “A History of the Rice Industry of Southwestern Louisiana” (1967), http://ereserves.mcneese.edu/depts/archive/FTBooks/babineaux.html (accessed August 12, 2015).
11. “Japanese in Texas,” Houston Chronicle, March 12, 1904, 4.
12. “Japanese Colony for Texas,” Houston Chronicle, March 20, 1904, 3.
13. “Japanese Citizens: Recent Ruling on Naturalization Is Worked On,” Shreveport Caucasian, March 28, 1905, 5. See also Alan G. Gauthreaux, Italian Louisiana: History, Heritage, and Tradition (Mount Pleasant, S.C.: Arcadia Publishing, 2014), and Elizabeth Fussell, “Constructing New Orleans, Constructing Race: A Population History of New Orleans,” Journal of American History 94 (December 2007): 846–55, for more information on the 1891 lynching as well as Italians in New Orleans and Louisiana.
14. “Welsh Lands Japanese Colony,” Welsh Rice Belt Journal, November 25, 1904, 1.
15. “Jap Colony Delayed in Coming,” Welsh Rice Belt Journal, February 10, 1905, 3.
16. “Shell Canal Experiment,” Opelousas Saint Landry Clarion, November 11, 1925, 3.
17. “Yamato,” Spanish River Papers 6 (October 1977): 3. See also “Brief History of Bocca Raton,” Spanish River Papers 2 (May 1973): 6–7.
18. “Yamato and Morikami: The Story of the Japanese Colony and Some of Its Settlers,” Spanish River Papers 13 (Spring 1985): 7–11.
19. “The Homeseeker,” Florida Farmer, July 12, 1908, 4.
20. Ibid.
21. “Japs Locate West of Eau Galle,” Florida Star, August 28, 1908, 1.
22. “The Homeseeker,” 4.
23. “News from Around the State,” Madison New Enterprise, March 16, 1905, 6; “News from Around the State,” Madison New Enterprise, January 7, 1904, 3.
24. “Florida Needs Japanese Immigration to Develop Her Latent Resources,” Pensacola Journal, May 26, 1903, 11.
25. “Letters to the Editor,” Live Oak Democrat, November 11, 1905, 4.
26. “Jap Colony Flourishing,” Pensacola Journal, September 22, 1907, 4.
27. “Celebration for 350th Anniversary of House of Okudaira,” Ft. Pierce News, April 17, 1912, 1; “Yamato July 4th Celebration,” Pensacola Journal, July 15, 1908, 1; “State Gleanings,” San Mateo News, February 5, 1910; “Yamato,” 8–10.
28. “Japanese Official Inspected Colony,” Ocala Evening News Star, November 18, 1907, 7.
29. “Letters to the Editor,” Gainesville Twice-a-Week, January 4, 1906, 3.
30. “Editorials,” Gainesville Daily Sun, September 7, 1907, 3.
31. “The Homeseeker,” 3.
32. Ibid.
33. “Japanese Colony,” Madison New Enterprise, November 17, 1904, 3.
34. “Japanese Flourish in Florida,” Punta Gorda Hardware, May 2, 1909, 6.
35. Ibid.
36. “The Homeseeker,” 3.
37. Hinnershitz, “Demanding an Adequate Solution,” 5–6.
38. See Stan Flewelling, Shiakawa: Stories from a Pacific Northwest Japanese American Community (Seattle: University of Washington, 2002), for more information on Japanese and early anti-alien land laws.
39. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice, 45–48.
40. Ibid., 48–49; Edwin E. Ferguson, “The California Land Law and the Fourteenth Amendment,” California Law Review 35 (March 1947): 73–75.
41. “Danger from Japanese Migration,” Rice Belt Journal, April 20, 1906, 3.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. “LA Can Get Along without the Japs,” New Iberia Enterprise, April 24, 1915, 5.
46. Ibid.; my emphasis.
47. Ibid.
48. “Japanese Colonies in Louisiana,” St. Tammany Farmer, April 17, 1915, 5.
49. Ibid.
50. James Taylor, “The Japs Invasion,” Shreveport Caucasian, August 12, 1913, 1.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid.
54. “Old and New Constitution,” St. Landry Clarion, January 22, 1921, 1.
55. Ibid.
56. “Seek Alien Land Law in Louisiana,” New York Times, March 23, 1921, 3.
57. Official Journal of the Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of the State of Louisiana (Baton Rouge: Ramires-Jones Printing Company, 1922), 965.
58. “Legislators Defends [sic] the Constitution,” Opelousas Star-Progress, October 5, 1921, 3.
59. “Acts Hereafter Only in English,” Opelousas Star-Progress, May 18, 1921, 4.
60. “Aliens Cannot Own Land,” Donaldson Chief, April 23, 1921, 5.
61. Official Journal of the Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention, 965.
62. Editor’s Letters, Ocala Evening Star, October 10, 1913, 2.
63. “President Taft Will Smash the Bugaboo of Japanese Invasion,” Pensacola Journal, April 5, 1912, 1.
64. “Undesirable Immigrants: Colony of Japs Will Probably Settle in Clay County,” Ocala Evening Star, October 4, 1913, 1.
65. “Protest against Japanese Immigrants,” Jacksonville Star, April 12, 1913, 6.
66. Ibid.
67. The Korokan, “The Yellow Peril,” Ocala Banner, October 5, 1913, 3.
68. Fort Myers Press, August 19, 1913, 4.
69. “Congressman and Ex-Governor Clash,” Ocala Evening Star, October 8, 1913, 1.
70. “White Men and Women,” Ocala Evening Star, October 10, 1913, 1.
71. “Florida’s Leading Men Agree with Congressman Clark in His Opposition to Asiatic Immigration,” Ocala Evening Star, October 10, 1913, 1.
72. “Congressman and Ex-Governor Clash,” 1.
73. “Governor Trammel Investigating,” Pensacola Journal, October 16, 1913, 7.
74. Ibid.
75. Barry Eichengreen, Hall of Mirrors: The Great Depression, the Great Recession, and the Uses and Misuses of History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 3–12.
76. Laws of Florida, General Index to House Bills and Joint Resolutions (1926), 544.
77. “Defeat All,” Miami Herald, October 30, 1926, 15.
78. G. B. Wells, “Letters to the Editor: Dangerous,” Tampa Tribune, October 29, 1926, 7.
79. “Yamato and Morikami,” 10–11.
80. T. R. Fehrenbach, Lone Star: A History of Texas and Texans (Boston: DaCapo Press, 2007), 434–36.
81. Irwin A. Tang, Asian Texans: Our Histories and Our Lives (New York: It Works Publishing, 2008), 112–17. See also “Chinese-Texans,” folder 1, box 1, WFP.
82. Fred and R. C. Wong, Oral History Transcript, October 20, 2007, folder 28, box 1, WFP.
83. Shih-shan Henry Tsai, “Chinese in Arkansas,” Amerasia Journal 8 (1981): 12–13.
84. Applegate v. Luke, Supreme Court of Arkansas Opinion delivered March 4, 1927, Supreme Court of Arkansas, 173 Ark. 93.
85. “Arkansas State Constitution,” http://arkleg.state.ar.us/assembly/Summary/ArkansasConstitution (accessed July 16, 2015).
86. Applegate v. Luke.
87. Ibid.
88. Ibid., 94.
89. Ibid., 95.
90. Dori Felice Moss, “Strangers in Their Own Land: A Cultural History of Japanese American Internment Camps in Arkansas, 1942–1945” (master’s thesis, Georgia State University, 2007), 15–17. See also John Howard, Concentration Camps on the Home Front: Japanese Americans in the House of Jim Crow (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008).
91. Personal narrative of Ray D. Johnson, September 18, 1942–December 31, 1945, file 6, box 1, 12, Austin Smith Papers, Austin History Center, Austin, Tex.
92. “They’ll Have to Get Out after War,” Denson Tribune, September 17, 1943, 2.
93. See Scott Cashion, “Actions Speak Louder than Words . . . Sometimes: Reactions to the Wartime Evacuation and Internment of Japanese-Americans at Rohwer and Jerome” (master’s thesis, University of Arkansas, 2006); Calvin C. Smith, “The Response of Arkansas to Prisoners of War and Japanese Americans in Arkansas, 1942–1945,” Arkansas Historical Quarterly 53 (1994): 340–64; and William G. Anderson, “Early Reaction in Arkansas to the Relocation of Japanese in the State,” Arkansas Historical Quarterly 23 (Autumn 1964): 196–211.
94. Eula Wilson, Arkansas Publicity and Parks Commission News Release, Publicity Division, 413 State Capitol, Little Rock, Arkansas, folder 1, box 112, General Miscellaneous Files, Arkansas Studies Institute, Little Rock.
95. Ibid.; “Truck Farming in Desha County,” McGehee Times, January 3, 1946, 4.
96. “Center Closes as 345 Japs Leave for West,” McGehee Times, December 6, 1945, 2.
97. “Total Produce for 1943,” Denson Tribune, January 11, 1944, 3.
98. “Large Scale Farming—Rohwer Enterprise,” Rohwer Outpost, May 14, 1943, 4.
99. “Truck Farming in Desha County,” 2.
100. “Parish Officials Refuse and Rescinded in Louisiana,” folder 3, box 1, War Relocation Authority Personal Narratives, Arkansas Studies Institute, Little Rock; “Final Details from Georgia Farm on Way,” Rohwer Outpost, February 2, 1944, 2; “Enroute for Florida, Georgia,” Rohwer Outpost, January 19, 1944, 35; “Outside Employment,” Rohwer Outpost, August 7, 1943; “Japs May Not Leave the State,” McGehee Times, October 18, 1942, 1.
101. “Jap Colony Brings Stiff Protest—Governor Objects to Use of Japanese Labor,” McGehee Times, October 22, 1942, 5.
102. Acts of Arkansas, Act 47, p. 74.
103. “Would Prevent Japanese from Buying Land: Bill Introduced in State Senate,” McGehee Times, January 21, 1943, 1.
104. Ibid.
105. Acts of Arkansas, 75.
106. Calvin C. Smith, War and Wartime Changes: The Transformation of Arkansas, 1940–1945 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2009), 71–72.
107. “Democracy at Home,” Rohwer Outpost, March 10, 1943, 27.
108. “To Our Development,” Rohwer Outpost, April 28, 1943, 46.
109. “Land Act Unconstitutional,” Rohwer Outpost, March 13, 1945, 7.
110. Biennial Report of the Attorney General, Anti-Jap Law (Little Rock, Ark., 1944), chap. 3, “Aliens, S.,” 344; “Japanese May Purchase Land: 1943 Act Is Ruled Unconstitutional,” McGehee Times, March 11, 1943, 5.
1. See Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and the Struggle for Equality (New York: Vintage, 2004); Anders Walker, The Ghost of Jim Crow: How Southern Moderates Used Brown v. Board of Education to Stall Civil Rights (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009); Vanessa Siddle Walker, Their Highest Potential: An African American School Community in the Segregated South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); Tracy E. K’Meyer, From Brown to Meredith: The Long Struggle for School Desegregation in Louisville, Kentucky, 1954–2007 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013); and William H. Watkins, The White Architects of Black Education: Ideology and Power in America, 1865–1964 (New York: Teachers College Press, 2001), for more on the history of African American segregation in schools. For a more in-depth discussion of how segregation affected other minorities in the South, see Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2013); Jennifer R. Najera, The Borderlands of Race: Mexican Segregation in a South Texas Town (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2015); Carlos Kevin Blanton, Georgie I. Sanchez: The Long Fight for Mexican American Integration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015); Kim Cary Warren, The Quest for Citizenship: African American and Native American Education in Kansas, 1880–1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); and David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1785–1928 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1995). For a more in-depth discussion of public and private education in early America, see Carl Kaestle’s Pillars of the Republic: Common Schools and American Society, 1780–1860 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983).
2. See Leslie Bow, Partly Colored: Asian Americans and Racial Anomaly in the Segregated South (New York: NYU Press, 2011).
3. See Robert Seto Quan, Lotus among the Magnolias (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007); James W. Loewen, The Mississippi Chinese: Between Black and White (Long Grove, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1988); and Bow, Partly Colored.
4. See Thomas Guglielmo, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), for more on Italian immigrants and whiteness in American history.
5. See Joyce Kuo, “Excluded, Segregated, and Forgotten: A Historical View of the Discrimination of Chinese in Public Schools,” Asian American Law Journal 5 (January 1998): 181–212, for a more general discussion of discrimination against Asian American students.
6. See Paul Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), for a more in-depth discussion of the Pensionado Program and its impact on U.S. colonial relations.
7. “Filipino Students,” Louisville Evening Bulletin, July 11, 1904, 4.
8. See John A. Hardin, Fifty Years of Segregation: Black Higher Education in Kentucky, 1904–1954 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2014).
9. “Their Color Bars Them,” Spokane Daily Chronicle, July 7, 1904, 3.
10. Twelfth Population Census of the United States, reel 539, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
11. “Their Color Bars Them.”
12. “Shall Chinese Boy Go to White or Colored Schools, Kentucky Problem,” The Day, October 9, 1913, 7.
13. “State Officials Ponder Very Vexing Problem: Shall Chinese Boy Go to the White or Colored Schools of State?,” Hartford Herald, November 12, 1913, 1; “Shall Chinese Boy Go to White or Colored Schools.”
14. Office of the Attorney General, Biennial Report of the Attorney General of the Commonwealth of Kentucky (1913), 273.
15. See Erika Lee, At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigrants during the Exclusion Era, 1882–1943 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Angelo N. Ancheta, Race, Rights, and the Asian American Experience (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998); and Lucy E. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995).
16. Office of the Attorney General, Biennial Report, 273.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid., 275.
22. Ibid.
23. Monroe Nathan Walk, Negro Yearbook and Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1912–1913 (Tuskegee, 1913), 392.
24. See Richard Campanella, “Chinatown, New Orleans,” in Preservation in Print, Preservation Resource Center of New Orleans (November 2013): 17–18, and Geographies of New Orleans: Urban Fabrics before the Storm (New Orleans: Center for Louisiana Studies, 2006).
25. See Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York: Little, Brown, 1998); Elmer Sandmeyer, The Anti-Chinese Movement in America (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1991); Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); and Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), for more discussion on the rise of anti-Asian sentiment along the West Coast.
26. Adrienne Berard, Water Tossing Boulders: How a Family of Chinese Immigrants Led the First Fight to Desegregate Schools in the Jim Crow South (Boston: Beacon Press, 2016), 11.
27. See Chapter 1.
28. Loewen, Mississippi Chinese, 44–52; “Abstract of the Chinese in Mississippi: The Test Case for Segregation,” folder 1, box 3, LC; “Mississippi Chinese Statistics,” folder 3, box 3, LC.
29. Interview with Willa Johnson, November 28, 1938, folder 10, box 3, LC.
30. Loewen, Mississippi Chinese, 108–14.
31. Ibid.
32. Berard, Water Tossing Boulders, 5.
33. Lum Case.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.
36. Petition for Writ of Mandamus, Lum Case.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid.
39. Suggestion on Error, Lum Case. See also Mae M. Ngai, The Lucky Ones: One Family and the Extraordinary Invention of Chinese America (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010), for more details on the Tape v. Hurley case and its implications for Chinese American history.
40. Kluger, Simple Justice, 50–84.
41. Motion to Appeal, Lum Case.
42. “Chinese Barred from the Rosedale Schools,” Bolivar Democrat, November 12, 1924, 7.
43. See Sieglinde Lim de Sánchez, “Crafting a Delta Chinese Community: Education and Acculturation in Twentieth-Century Southern Baptist Missionary Schools,” History of Education Quarterly 43 (2003): 74–90; Kit Mui L. Chan, “The Chinese-Americans in the Mississippi Delta,” Journal of Mississippi History 35 (1973): 29–35; Robert W. O’Brien, “Status of the Chinese in the Mississippi Delta,” Social Forces 19 (1941): 386–90; and Robert M. Winter, “Rosedale Presbyterians and the Mississippi Chinese: Changing Concepts of Equality in an Aristocratic Southern Town,” Journal of Presbyterian History 78 (2000): 32–47.
44. Lum Case.
45. Berard, Water Tossing Boulders, 84–85.
46. Chan, “Chinese-Americans in the Mississippi Delta,” 33–35.
47. Gong Lum v. Rice, 275 US 78, Supreme Court, 1927, https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/275/78 (accessed May 13, 2015). For more on the Cumming decision, see James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
48. Gong Lum v. Rice, 275 US 78.
49. Ibid.
50. See Ancheta, Race, Rights, and the Asian American Experience, 78–110.
51. Bond, State Superintendent of Education v. Tij Fung et al., No. 26333, Supreme Court of Mississippi, Division A., October 10, 1927; Albert Frantz, “Notes on Recent Cases,” Notre Dame Law Review 3 (1928): 1–3. See also Charles S. Magnum Jr., The Legal Status of the Negro (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1940).
52. Bond v. Tij Fung.
53. Ibid.
54. Ibid.
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
58. Ibid.
59. Ibid.
60. Ibid.
61. See Gabriele Chin, Cindy Hwang Chiang, and Shirley S. Park, “The Lost Brown v. Board of Education and Immigration Law,” North Carolina Law Review 91 (2013): 1657–98, for an interesting discussion of the effects of the Tij Fung case on immigration law following Brown v. Board.
62. Tev Shepherd, The Chinese of Greenville, Mississippi (self-published, 1999), 38–42.
63. Letter to Mr. H. B. Heidelberg, 1941, folder 4, box 3, LC.
64. Ibid.
65. To Clarksdale School Board from N. D. Timmerman, February 1941, folder 4, box 3, LC.
66. Chan, “Chinese-Americans in the Mississippi Delta,” 38–40.
67. Qtd. in Shepherd, Chinese of Greenville, 43.
68. Ibid.
69. “Local School Privilege Is Given Chinese,” Greenville Delta Democrat Times, May 27, 1945, 6.
70. See Ellen Wu, The Color of Success: Asian Americans and the Origins of the Model Minority (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013); Madeline Y. Hsu, The Good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015); and K. Scott Wong, Americans First: Chinese Americans and the Second World War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005), for more discussions of the model minority identity before and after World War II.
71. Transcript, Dr. Audrey Sidney Oral History Interview 1, February 4, 2000, by Kimberly Lancaster, 5, COH.
72. Transcript, Edward Joe Oral History Interview 1, May 1, 2000, by Kimberly Lancaster, 5–6, COH.
73. Transcript, Bobby Jue Oral History Interview 2, February 4, 2000, by Kimberly Lancaster, 7, COH.
74. Daniel Bronstein, “Segregation, Exclusion, and the Chinese Communities in Georgia, 1850–1940,” in Asian Americans in Dixie: Race and Migration in the South, ed. Khyati Y. Joshi and Jigna Desai (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2013), 122–23.
75. Ibid., 124–25.
76. Qtd. in Thomas Ganschow, The Chinese in Augusta: A Historical Sketch (self-published, 1996), 10–11.
77. Ganschow, Chinese in Augusta, 11–12. See also Bess Beatty, “The Loo Chong Case in Waynesboro: A Case of Sinophobia in Georgia,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 67 (1983): 35–48.
78. Ganschow, Chinese in Augusta, 11–12.
79. Sally Ken, “The Chinese Community of Augusta, Georgia, from 1873–1971,” Richmond County History 4 (1972): 55–56.
80. “Ban on Race Amalgamation to Be Urged in Legislature by DeKalb Representative,” Atlanta Constitution, June 21, 1925, 7.
81. “Bar Chinese from Attending School in Mississippi,” Augusta Chronicle, October 11, 1927, 6.
82. Ibid.
83. Ken, “Chinese Community of Augusta,” 55–56; “Let Us Be Fair,” Augusta Chronicle, July 10, 1931, 4.
84. “Let Us Be Fair,” 4.
85. Ibid.
86. Ibid.
87. Ibid.
88. “Letters from the People,” Augusta Chronicle, July 12, 1931, 8B.
89. Ibid.
90. Ibid.
91. “Harmony Urged on Education Board,” Augusta Chronicle, July 12, 1931, 4.
92. Ken, “Chinese Community of Augusta,” 60–61.
93. Julie M. Weise, Corazón de Dixie: Mexicanos in the U.S. South since 1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 68–71, 73, 75–76.
1. Direct examination of Frances Hutcheson by E. A. Stephens, May 11, 1932, AR, 27–29. Evidence cited throughout this chapter for the case in all its incarnations is found in this supreme court trial record, which is paged continuously.
2. Ibid.
3. See Danielle McGuire, At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Rape, and Resistance—A New History of the Civil Rights Movement from Rosa Parks to the Rise of Black Power (New York: Vintage, 2010); Phillip Dray, At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America (New York: Modern Library, 2003); Amy Louise Wood, Lynching and Spectacle: Witnessing Racial Violence in America, 1890–1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009); and Dora Apel, Imagery of Lynching: Black Men, White Women, and the Mob (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2004). As W. Fitzhugh Brundage explains, lynching was more common in the cotton belt of Georgia as opposed to the coastal regions (where a variety of factors, including a well-established set of white-paternalist norms and large black communities, often maintained boundaries and tempered violence). See W. Fitzhugh Brundage, Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1890–1930 (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1993), and W. Fitzhugh Brundage, ed., Under Sentence of Death: Lynching in the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
4. “Filipino Yo-Yo Artists,” Thomasville Times Enterprise, May 13, 1932, 2.
5. The political status of Filipinos during American rule was a product of the Insular Cases, a series of court cases relating to citizenship in American colonies and territories (primarily Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippines) brought before the Supreme Court in 1901. The Insular Cases established the general principle that the rights of American citizenship did not necessarily “follow the flag.” For discussion of the intersection of imperial policy and American legal and constitutional debates, see Bartholomew H. Sparrow, The Insular Cases and the Emergence of American Empire (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2006); Christian Duffy Burnett and Burk Marshall, eds., Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion, and the Constitution (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001); and Rick Baldoz, The Third Asiatic Invasion: Migration and Empire in Filipino America, 1898–1946 (New York: NYU Press, 2011). On Taft and the phrase “little brown brothers,” see Stuart Creighton Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation”: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 134, 167.
6. See Baldoz, Third Asiatic Invasion; Dorothy Fujita-Rony, American Workers, Colonial Power: Philippine Seattle and the Transpacific West, 1919–1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); and Angelo N. Ancheta, Race, Rights, and the Asian American Experience (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998). See also Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), for a more in-depth discussion of Filipinos who fought against antimiscegenation laws in the American West.
7. See Leslie Bow, Partly Colored: Asian Americans and Racial Anomaly in the Segregated South (New York: NYU Press, 2011), 4–6, for more explanation of her use of the term “interstitiality” to describe the identities of Asian Americans in southern states.
8. Defendant’s Statement, AR, 47–48.
9. There were 42,268 Filipino men and 2,940 Filipina women enumerated in the 1930 U.S. Census, vol. 2, table 6, 103. See also Fujita-Rony, American Workers, 91.
10. According to the 1930 census, there were 1,869 Chinese in the South Atlantic states and 743 Chinese in the East South Central region, whereas there were 393 Japanese living in the South Atlantic region and only 46 recorded Japanese in the East South Central region. For the purposes of census data, “the South” means the South Atlantic and East South Central regions (Georgia is enumerated with the South Atlantic region). See U.S. Census Bureau, Fifteenth Census of the United States, 1930, Population by Sex, Color, and Nativity, 1930, with Number of Males per 100 Females, 1900 to 1930, by Divisions and States, 103.
11. Marcia Baker, “Atlanta’s Foreign Colonies Prove Intriguing to Visitor: Many People of Other Lands Moving Here,” Atlanta Constitution, April 15, 1929, 17. On immigrants and ethnic diversity in the South, see Louise Reynes Edwards-Simpson, “Sicilian Immigration to New Orleans, 1870–1910: Ethnicity, Race, and Social Position in the New South” (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1996); Andrew Sluyter, Case Watkins, James P. Chaney, and Annie M. Gibson, Hispanic and Latino New Orleans: Immigration and Identity since the Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 2015); and George B. Pruden Jr., “History of the Chinese in Savannah, Georgia,” in Georgia’s East Asian Connection: Into the Twenty-First Century, West College Studies in the Social Sciences 28, ed. Jonathan Goldstein (Carrollton, Ga., 1990), 17–34.
12. “Flores Services,” Coshocton Tribune, January 4, 1964.
13. “Yo-Yo Trick Goes on the Air as Town Goes Crazy on Toy,” Atlanta Constitution, March 23, 1932, 4; “Yo-Yo Brings Entertainment to Scottish Rite Hospital,” Atlanta Constitution, March 17, 1932, 5; “Yo-Yo Is No Cry, Oath, Drug, It’s Simply a Unique Game,” Atlanta Constitution, March 14, 1932, 14; “Yo Yo Boys Show Atlantans Elusive Top Game,” Atlanta Constitution, March 15, 1932, 5; “There Is No Spring in Yo-Yo; Axle and the Discs Do the Trick,” Atlanta Constitution, March, 25, 1932, 18.
14. Daniel Bronstein, “Segregation, Exclusion, and the Chinese Communities in Georgia, 1850–1940,” in Asian Americans in Dixie: Race and Migration in the South, ed. Khyati Y. Joshi and Jigna Desai (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2013), 107–14.
15. “New Dope Selling Scheme Charged by Federal Agent,” Atlanta Constitution, October 19, 1929, 8; “Balmori Faces New Narcotics Inquiry,” Atlanta Constitution, October 8, 1930, 7; “U.S. Circuit Court Opens October Term,” Atlanta Constitution, October 7, 1930, 9; “White Farmers Oust Filipinos in Florida,” Atlanta Constitution, July 24, 1932, 12B. See also Paul Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), and Linda Espana-Maram, Creating Masculinity in Los Angeles’s Little Manila: Working-Class Filipinos and Popular Culture, 1920s–1950s (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006).
16. Direct examination of Frances Hutcheson by E. A. Stephens, May 11, 1932, AR, 28; direct examination of Rosa Mae Clower by E. A. Stephens, May 11, 1932, AR, 34 (quotation).
17. Direct examination of Rosa Mae Clower by E. A. Stephens, May 11, 1932, AR, 35–39 (first quotation on 35; second through seventh quotations on 36; eighth quotation on 39).
18. Recross-examination of Rosa Mae Clower by F. J. Turner, May 11, 1932, AR, 41.
19. See McGuire, At the Dark End of the Street, 24–27; Diane Miller Sommerville, Rape and Race in the Nineteenth-Century South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); Crystal N. Feimster, Southern Horrors: Women and the Politics of Rape and Lynching (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009); and Lisa Lindquist Dorr, White Women, Rape, and the Power of Race in Virginia, 1900–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004). Dorr argues that in Virginia, class factored into accusations of rape as much as race, creating a complex picture of white female sexuality and respectability in the South.
20. See Peter Wallenstein, Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and Law—An American History (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2004); Rachel F. Moran, Interracial Intimacy: The Regulation of Race and Romance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003); and Gregory Michael Dorr, “Principled Expediency: Eugenics, Naim v. Naim, and the Supreme Court,” American Journal of Legal History 42 (1998): 119–59. See also Randall Kennedy, Interracial Intimacies: Sex, Marriage, Identity, and Adoption (New York: Vintage, 2004), for more on the relationship between interracial relationships and the law more generally.
21. “Ban on Race Amalgamation to be Urged in Legislature by DeKalb Representative,” Atlanta Constitution, June 21, 1925, 7A; “An Act to define who are persons of color and who are white persons, to prohibit and prevent the intermarriage of such persons . . . ,” August 20, 1927, Acts and Resolutions of the General Assembly of the State of Georgia, 1927 (Atlanta, 1927), esp. 273–77.
22. Michelle Brattain’s article “Miscegenation and Competing Definitions of Race in Twentieth-Century Louisiana,” Journal of Southern History 71 (2005): 558–621, provides an excellent examination of the complexity Filipinos introduced into the Louisiana courts and miscegenation law. See also Hrishi Karthikeyan and Gabriel J. Chin, “Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910–1950,” Asian Law Journal 9 (May 2002): 1–40.
23. For an example from the Atlanta press, see Frank Dallam, “Following the Scarlet Trail of White Slavery in America,” Atlanta Constitution, August 14, 1921, magazine section, 5. See also Mary Ting Yi Lui, The Chinatown Trunk Mystery: Murder, Miscegenation, and Other Dangerous Encounters in Turn-of-the-Century New York City (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005); Allison Varzally, Making a Non-White America: Californians Coloring outside Ethnic Lines, 1925–1955 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008); and Elise Chenier, “Sex, Intimacy, and Desire among Men of Chinese Heritage and Women of Non-Asian Heritage in Toronto, 1910–1950,” Urban History Review 42 (Spring 2014): 29–43.
24. “Miss Sigel Made Love to Two Chinese: Success of Wealthy Rival Drove Leon to Kill Girl,” Baltimore Afro-American, June 26, 1909, 2; “Enraged Chinese Lover Shoots Girl Friend, Kills Self,” Baltimore Afro-American, September 10, 1949, 18.
25. Quoted in Baldoz, Third Asiatic Invasion, 122. See also John S. W. Park, Elusive Citizenship: Immigration, Asian Americans, and the Paradox of Civil Rights (New York: NYU Press, 2004), 118–20.
26. “Suicide Pact Takes Lives of Two in South,” Geneva Daily Times, January 19, 1931, 1; “Filipino Butler and Girl Found Dead in Automobile on Candler Estate,” Atlanta Constitution, January 19, 1931, 1–2.
27. On Mary Phagan and Leo Frank, see Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), 68–70; Leonard Dinnerstein, The Leo Frank Case (rev. ed., Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2008); Steve Oney, And the Dead Shall Rise: The Murder of Mary Phagan and the Lynching of Leo Frank (New York: Vintage, 2004); and Jeffrey Melnick, Black-Jewish Relations on Trial: Leo Frank and Jim Conley in the New South (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000).
28. Direct examination of Paul Seymour by E. A. Stephens, May 11, 1932, AR, 51.
29. Direct examination of George Pounds by E. A. Stephens, May 11, 1932, AR, 54.
30. Direct examination of Frances Hutcheson by F. J. Turner, May 11, 1932, AR, 33.
31. Ibid., 34.
32. Defendant’s Exceptions Pendente Lite, AR, 15.
33. Ibid.
34. McGuire, At the Dark End of the Street, 62.
35. Indictment, April 22, 1932, AR, 2.
36. Turner was a former police reporter for the Atlanta Constitution who passed the bar exam in 1928 and practiced law until his death in 1942. See “F. Joe Turner, Lawyer, Dies at Age of 49: Was Police Reporter for Constitution for 10 Years,” Atlanta Constitution, December, 18, 1942, 27.
37. Charge of the Court, AR, 66.
38. Interestingly, in a 1954 court case Moore declared a mistrial when the well-respected African American and Atlanta-based civil rights attorney Donald L. Hollowell objected to the use of the phrase “that fat nigger” to describe his client. Many Atlantans came to recognize Moore as one of the fairer judges in cases involving African Americans. See Maurice C. Daniels, Saving the Soul of Georgia: Donald L. Hollowell and the Struggle for Civil Rights (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2013), 39–40.
39. Transcript of Record, True Bill, State of Georgia v. Fortunatio Annunciatio, Case Number 9249, Supreme Court of Georgia, October 1932 term, AR.
40. Frederic R. Coudert [Sr.], “Our New Peoples: Citizens, Subjects, Nationals, or Aliens,” Columbia Law Review 3 (January 1903), 13–32.
41. Baldoz, Third Asiatic Invasion, 71.
42. Direct examination of Frances Hutcheson by E. A. Stephens, May 11, 1932, AR, 29–31.
43. Cross examination of Frances Hutcheson by F. J. Turner, May 11, 1932, AR, 31.
44. Ibid., 30–31.
45. Direct examination of Paul W. Seymour by E. A. Stephens, May 11, 1932, AR, 49.
46. Harry Ingram, sworn for the state rebuttal, AR, 53.
47. Direct examination of Dr. W. A. Arnold by E. A. Stephens, May 11, 1932, AR, 44.
48. Recross-examination of Rosa Mae by F. J. Turner, May 11, 1932, 41.
49. Ibid.
50. Defendant’s Statement, AR, 47.
51. Ibid., 48.
52. Defendant’s Exceptions Pendente Lite, AR, 7.
53. The Fourth Amendment’s protections against illegal search and seizure did not become prominent parts of criminal investigations until the 1960s when the Supreme Court ruled in Mapp v. Ohio (367 U.S. 632 [1961]) that all evidence obtained illegally is inadmissible in a court of law. On the Fourth Amendment, see Cynthia Lee, ed., Searches and Seizures: The Fourth Amendment, Its Constitutional History and Contemporary Debate (New York: Prometheus Books, 2011), and William J. Cuddihy, The Fourth Amendment: Origins and Original Meaning, 602–1791 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).
54. Defendant’s Exceptions Pendente Lite, AR, 3.
55. Ibid., 6.
56. Ibid.
57. “Crossections of the South,” Atlanta Constitution, May 15, 1932, 16A; “Cross Sections of the South,” Atlanta Constitution, May 17, 1932, 8.
58. Defendant’s Pendente Lite, at 19–20.
59. Ibid.
60. Motion for Retrial, AR, 17.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid., 18.
63. Ibid.
64. Ibid.
65. Ibid., 19.
66. Leo Frank v. State of Georgia, 142, Ga. 617 (1914); Ray H. Everett, “Failure of Segregation as Protector of Innocent Womanhood,” Social Hygiene 5 (1919): 529.
67. Motion for Retrial, AR, 19.
68. Ibid.
69. “Filipinos Not Ready for Self-Government, Crisp Says on Return,” Atlanta Constitution, August 11, 1925, 14.
70. “Uncle Sam’s Jekyll-and-Hyde Problem,” Atlanta Sunday Constitution Magazine, September 14, 1924, 7.
71. Kramer, Blood of Government, 397–98.
72. Motion for New Trial, AR, 25. On Subia’s hearing for a retrial, see “Cross Sections of Southern Life,” Atlanta Constitution, August 21, 1932, 3A.
73. Annunciatio v. State, 176 Ga. 787 (1933).
74. Ibid., 796.
75. Despite China’s relationship with the United States as a wartime ally, the Chinese Exclusion Act (which would be repealed later, in 1943) prohibited many Chinese from entering the United States, resulting in captains and authorities denying leave to Chinese sailors for fear of illegal entry and abandonment. Although attempts were made to find the Chinese sailors who abandoned ship, many fled in hopes of remaining in the United States for more than just a temporary shore leave. See “Chinese Sailors Revolt in N.Y.,” Atlanta Daily World, June 29, 1942, 2; “Chinese Seamen Win Agreement with British Merchant Marines,” New York Times, May 10, 1942, F7; and “China Comes Ashore,” New York Times, August 6, 1942, 18. Little is known about Naim’s life either prior to or after his legal battles during the mid-1950s.
76. Pascoe, What Comes Naturally, 206, 226–31. See also Julie Lavonne Nokov, Race Union: Law, Intimacy, and the White State in Alabama, 1865–1954 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2009); Charles Frank Robinson, Dangerous Liaisons: Sex and Love in the Segregated South (Lafayette: University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press, 2003); Lisa Lindquist Dorr, “Arm in Arm: Gender, Eugenics, and Virginia’s Racial Integrity Acts of the 1920s,” Journal of Women’s History 11 (1999): 143–67.
77. “Virginia ‘Argers’ if Girl May Wed Chinese,” Baltimore Afro-American, December 1, 1928, 1. Maryland was also not an option for Naim and Lamberth. In 1927, a Chinese man, Samuel Moy, and his white fiancée, Turretta Budd, were denied a marriage license in Rockville under the state’s existing antimiscegenation code prohibiting marriages between whites and “coloreds.” See “Refuse Chinese License to Wed Girl,” Baltimore Afro-American, April 16, 1927, 20.
78. Ruby’s difficulty in securing a divorce via charges of adultery speaks to the nonexistence of no-fault divorces in many states at this time.
79. “Chinese, White Marriage Voided,” Baltimore Afro-American, July 22, 1950, 19. The newspaper article explained that Yigh was more than likely “pressured” by Wolfe’s parents to have the marriage annulled.
80. See Fay Botham, Almighty God Created the Races: Christianity, Interracial Marriage, and American Law (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), and Peter Wallenstein, “Race, Marriage, and the Law of Freedom: Alabama and Virginia, 1860s–1960s,” Chicago-Kent Law Review 70 (1994): 371–419.
81. Cathleen Caron, “Continuing to Draw Inspiration from David Carliner,” February 15, 2013, http://www.acslaw.org/acsblog/continuing-to-draw-inspiration-from-david-carliner (accessed November 11, 2013).
82. Richard Delgado, “Naim v. Naim,” Nevada Law Review 12 (2012): 526–31; Gabriele Chin, Cindy Hwang Chiang, and Shirley S. Park, “The Lost Brown v. Board of Education and Immigration Law,” North Carolina Law Review 91 (2013): 1657–98; Chandan Reddy, “Time for Rights? Loving, Gay Marriage, and the Limits of Legal Justice,” Fordham Law Review 76 (2008): 2849–72; Kennedy, Interracial Intimacies; Rebecca Schoff, “Deciding on Doctrine: Anti-Miscegenation Statutes and the Development of Equal Protection Analysis,” Virginia Law Review 95 (May 2009): 627–65.
83. Botham, Almighty God, 11–17.
84. “She Weds a Chinese,” Baltimore Afro-American, April 11, 1925, A17; “Chinese Takes Bride,” Baltimore Afro-American, August 13, 1920, 1; “Miss Sigel Made Love to Two Chinese: Success of Wealthy Rival Drove Leon to Kill Girl,” Baltimore Afro-American, June 26, 1909, 2; “Enraged Chinese Lover Shoots Girlfriend, Kills Self,” Baltimore Afro-American, September 10, 1949, 18; Harry Winston, “Chinese Love: The Story of an Interracial Love That Was Slightly Hampered by an Old Chinese Custom,” Baltimore Afro-American, June 2, 1934, 24.
85. Ruby Elaine Naim to Han Say Naim, April 17, 1953, NVAR, 1955, Supreme Court of Appeals of the State of Virginia.
86. Ruby Naim to Han Say Naim, September, 29, 1953, NVAR.
87. David Carliner to Edward J. Emis, March 9, 1954, folder 21, box 1106, CR.
88. Memo re: Ruby Naim v. Han Say Naim, CR.
89. Petition for Appeals—Supreme Court of Appeals, CR.
90. See Erika Lee, At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigrants during the Exclusion Era, 1882–1943 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Madeline Y. Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home: Transnationalism and Migration between the United States and South China (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2000); Jean Pfaelzer, Driven Out: The Forgotten War against Chinese Americans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); and Judy Yung, Gordon Chang, and Mark Him Lai, eds., Chinese American Voices: From the Gold Rush to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), for a closer analysis of early Chinese and Chinese American civil rights suits and cases.
91. J. Lindsey Almond, C. F. Hicks, and R. D. McIlwaine, Amicus Curial, Record No. 4368, BCVA, 25–26.
92. Ibid.
93. “Court Upholds Interracial Marriage Ban,” Washington Post and Times Herald, June 14, 1955, 30.
94. Carliner to Levy, April 29, 1955, CR.
95. Ibid.
96. Memo from Levy, November 21, 1955, CR.
97. Carliner to Levy, July 20, 1955, CR.
98. Ibid.
99. See Cindy I-Fen Cheng, Citizens of Asian America: Democracy and Race during the Cold War (New York: NYU Press, 2013); Sucheng Chan and Madeline Y. Hsu, Chinese Americans and the Politics of Race and Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008); and Xiaojian Zhao, Remaking Chinese America: Immigration, Family, and Community, 1940–1965 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2002).
100. Levy to Carliner, June 29, 1955, CR.
101. Carliner to Levy, June 1, 1955, CR.
102. Ibid., April 20, 1955, CR.
103. Sol Rabkin to Carliner, August 25, 1955, CR.
104. Ibid.
105. In the years following World War II, the classification of Asian Americans as the “model minority” began to emerge. See Ellen Wu, The Color of Success: Asian Americans and the Origins of the Model Minority (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013); Cheng, Citizens of Asian America; Madeline Y. Hsu, The Good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015); K. Scott Wong, Americans First: Chinese Americans and the Second World War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005); and Jingyi Song, Shaping and Reshaping Chinese American Identity: New York’s Chinese during the Depression and World War II (New York: Lexington Books, 2010).
106. Sol Rabkin to Carliner, August 25, 1955, CR.
107. Ibid.
108. Levy to Roger Baldwin, August 2, 1955, CR.
109. Ibid.
110. Carliner to Levy, June 24, 1955, CR.
111. Ibid.
112. Jack Wasserman to Herb Levy, October 24, 1955, CR. See also Dorr, “Principled Expediency,” 147, for a more in-depth discussion of the NAACP’s reaction to the Naim case.
113. “Virginia Decision Vacated,” Lubbock Times, November 15, 1955, 5.
114. Luther A. Huston, “Civil Rights Highlight Supreme Court Session: Justices Will Consider Many Issues Involving Individual Freedoms,” New York Times, October 22, 1955, E6.
115. “Court Calls for More Data on Interracial Marriages,” Los Angeles Times, November 15, 1955, 7.
116. Dorr, “Principled Expediency,” 135.
117. David Carliner to Rowland Watts, Staff Counsel of ACLU, March 13, 1956, CR.
118. Dorr, “Principled Expediency,” 156.
119. Roger Farquar, “Virginia Eyes Sailor’s Status,” Washington Post and Times Herald, January 23, 1956, 12.
120. “High Court Hits Vote Racial Tag,” Washington Post and Times Herald, November 15, 1955, 23.
121. “Racial Marriage Case Reopened,” Washington Post and Times Herald, February 3, 1956, 42; “Court Shelves Interracial Marriage Case,” Los Angeles Times, March 13, 1956, 26.
122. As told to Gregory Dorr. See Dorr, “Principled Expediency,” 142.
123. Georgia Central Register of Convicts, 1913–1952 (bulk 1930–1938), A–G, 4, Georgia Archives, accessed through subscription database Georgia Central Register of Convicts, 1817–1976 (Provo, Utah, 2014), images 11–12, via Ancestry.com.
124. Central Register of Convicts, 1913–1938, P–Z, 18, Georgia Archives, accessed through Georgia Central Register of Convicts, 1817–1796, images 157–58, via Ancestry.com; marriage record of Amby S. Subia and Marie Henry, October 12, 1935 (recorded October 14, 1935), Paulding County, Ga., Record of Marriages, Book E, 1922–1936, 567, County Marriage Records, 1828–1978, Georgia Archives, accessed via subscription database Georgia Marriage Records from Select Counties, 1828–1978 (Provo, Utah, 2013), image 326, via Ancestry.com.
1. See Ellen Wu, The Color of Success: Asian Americans and the Origins of the Model Minority (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013); Madeline Y. Hsu, The Good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015); and Cindy I-Fen Cheng, Citizens of Asian America: Democracy and Race during the Cold War (New York: NYU Press, 2013). See also Charlotte Brooks, Between Mao and McCarthy: Chinese American Politics in the Cold War Years (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015) and Alien Neighbors, Foreign Friends: Asian Americans, Housing, and the Transformation of Urban California (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), for a more general look at the social and political changes that Chinese Americans and other Asian American groups faced following World War II.
2. See Leslie Bow, Partly Colored: Asian Americans and Racial Anomaly in the Segregated South (New York: NYU Press, 2011), and interview with Amzie Moore, 1967, folder 22, box 3, LC.
3. Pew Research Center, “Modern Immigration Wave Brings 59 Million to U.S., Driving Population Growth and Change through 1965,” http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/09/28/modern-immigration-wave-brings-59-million-to-u-s-driving-population-growth-and-change-through-2065/ (accessed September 28, 2015).
4. Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 257–62.
1. Steve Olafson and Glenn Lewis, “Klan Chief Tells Rally Country Must Be Reclaimed by ‘Blood,’” Houston Post, February 15, 1981, 10A.
2. Roy Vu, “Natives of a Ghost Country: The Vietnamese in Houston and Their Construction of a Postwar Community,” in Asian Americans in Dixie: Race and Migration in the South, ed. Khyati Y. Joshi and Jigna Desai (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2013), 165–67. See also Fred R. Von der Mehden, The Ethnic Groups of Houston (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 1984), and Irwin A. Tang, Asian Texans: Our Histories and Our Lives (New York: It Works Publishing, 2008), for more in-depth discussions of the Vietnamese, their communities, and their culture in Houston. See also Sucheng Chan’s The Vietnamese American 1.5 Generation: Stories of War, Revolution, Fight, and New Beginnings (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006) for a more general description and analysis of the Vietnamese refugee experience in the United States.
3. Olafson and Lewis, “Klan Chief,” 10A.
4. Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York: Little, Brown, 1998), 452–54, 481, 491.
5. United States Census Bureau, 1980 Census of Population, General Population Characteristics, pt. 1, United States Summary, 137; U.S. Department of Commerce, We the Americans: Asians (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), 4.
6. United States Census Bureau, 1980 Census of Population, General Population Characteristics, pt. 1, United States Summary, 137; “From Vietnam to Austin,” folder 3, box 1, Austin History Center, Austin, Tex.; interview with Kimberli Zamarripa, June 10, 2008, folder 29, VOHP.
7. Interview with Hue Nguyen, November 15, 1992, folder 20, VOHP.
8. Interview with Thé Nguyen Nasternak, June 24, 2008, folder 11, VOHP.
9. Interview with Nancy Hoang Dan, June 1, 2008, folder 3, VOHP.
10. Interview with Ngai Van Nguyen, June 6, 2008, folder 25, VOHP.
11. Interview with Nasternak.
12. Interview with Vuong V. Nguyen, May 29, 2008, folder 31, VOHP.
13. “3 More Men Arrested, Justice Department to Mediate Dispute in Seadrift,” Houston Post, August, 9, 1979, 4.
14. Interview with Father Gregory Dean, June 13, 2008, folder 2, VOHP.
15. Interview with Leslie Casterline, June 12, 2008, folder 2, VOHP.
16. “Shrimpers Conflict: Survey Finds More Sour Grapes Than Illegal Boats,” Houston Post, March 29, 1981, 1.
17. Interview with Judge Linh Van Chau, May 23, 2006, folder 47, VOHP.
18. Interview with Dean.
19. “Shrimpers Conflict,” 1.
20. Interview with Casterline.
21. See Jefferson R. Cowie, Stayin’ Alive: The 1970s and the Last Days of the Working Class (New York: New Press, 2011); Thomas Borstelmann, The 1970s: A New Global History from Civil Rights to Economic Inequality (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013); and Rick Perlstein, Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America (New York: Scribner, 2009), for more on the rise of the Silent Majority and the economic downturn and rise of conservatism in the 1970s. See also Matthew D. Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), for a more specific discussion of the Silent Majority and suburbanization politics in “new” southern cities.
22. Interview with The Van Nguyen, March 30, 2008, folder 2, VOHP.
23. Mike Avalos, “Crab Fishing Feud Called ‘Powderkeg,’” Houston Post, August 6, 1979, 1, 23A.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid. “Federal Peacemaker Meets Feuding Factions in Seadrift,” Houston Post, August 11, 1979, 8C.
26. Avalos, “Crab Fishing Feud,” 23A.
27. “Feud Driving Vietnamese out of Seadrift, Spokesman Says,” Houston Post, August 8, 1979, 7A.
28. “Federal Peacemaker Meets Feuding Factions,” 8C.
29. Ibid., 10.
30. “Seadrift: Most of 100 Vietnamese Return after Fleeing in Fear,” Houston Post, August 12, 1979, 7.
31. “Pair to Settle Dispute in Fishing Rights Feud,” Houston Post, August 15, 1979, 4A.
32. “3 More Men Arrested,” 4.
33. “Seadrift: Most of 100 Vietnamese Return,” 7.
34. Interview with Casterline.
35. Interview with Dean.
36. Interview with Casterline.
37. Judge Gabrielle McDonald, Memorandum Opinion and Order, Vietnamese Fishermen’s Association v. The Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (1981), 4, http://www2.law.columbia.edu/faculty_franke/Torts/kkk.pdf (accessed July 12, 2015).
38. Interview with Huong Thi Pham, April 29, 2008, folder 21, VOHP.
39. The Knights of the Ku Klux Klan was a separate organization from the nationwide Ku Klux Klan. Following FBI investigations into the Klan during the 1970s, members determined that a new organization was needed to avoid further suspicions and broke with the dwindling original Klan. The Knights were based in Metairie, Louisiana, and granted Beam a charter for Texas in 1975. The Knights attempted to distance themselves from the drastic violent and racist measures associated with the “old” Klan of the South.
40. Olafson and Lewis, “Klan Chief,” 10.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. “Witness Says Defendant Told Vietnamese Boats Easy to Burn,” Houston Post, May 12, 1981, 22A.
45. “2 Vietnamese-Owned Boats Burn; Seabrook Police Seek Cause,” Houston Post, March 20, 1981, 2A.
46. “Assurances Given in Shrimpers’ Dispute,” Houston Post, February 18, 1981, 2A.
47. “Religious Leaders Support Viet Refugees,” Houston Post, March 19, 1981, 10.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
50. McDonald, Memorandum Opinion and Order, 4.
51. Ibid.
52. “Suit Filed to Protect Area Vietnamese Fishermen,” Houston Post, April 17, 1981, 15A.
53. Ibid.
54. Author’s telephone interview with Morris Dees, August 11, 2015.
55. Morris Dees, A Lawyer’s Journey: The Morris Dees Story (Chicago: American Bar Association, 2001), 23.
56. See Michael Ezra, The Economic Civil Rights Movement: African Americans and the Struggle for Economic Power (New York: Routledge, 2013); Tomiko Brown-Nagin, Courage to Dissent: Atlanta and the Long History of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); and Robert E. Weems, Business in Black and White: American Presidents and Black Entrepreneurs in the Twentieth Century (New York: NYU Press, 2009), for more on African Americans, civil rights, and business practices. For more on Asians and the fight for property protections during the nineteenth century, see Erika Lee, At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigrants during the Exclusion Era, 1882–1943 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), and Angelo N. Ancheta, Race, Rights, and the Asian American Experience (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998).
57. Continuation of the Deposition of Louis Beam, vol. 2, May 3, 1981, 42, AF.
58. Ibid., 46.
59. Ibid., 43.
60. Ibid., 57, 77.
61. Deposition of Gene Fisher, May 2, 1981, 39, AF.
62. Ibid., 80, 82, 115.
63. Deposition of Tran Van Phu, May 5, 1981, 11, AF.
64. Ibid., 17.
65. Ibid., 10.
66. Ibid., 11.
67. Deposition of Nam Van Nguyen, May 5, 1981, 62, 86, AF.
68. Ibid., 86.
69. Ibid., 46.
70. Ibid., 34.
71. McDonald, Memorandum Opinion and Order, 5.
72. Deposition of Phuong Pham, May 8, 1981, 10, AF.
73. Deposition of Nguyen Luu, May 5, 1981, 8, AF.
74. Ibid., 8.
75. Deposition of Nam Van Nguyen, 62.
76. McDonald, Memorandum Opinion and Order, 5.
77. Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), 82–112.
78. McDonald, Memorandum Opinion and Order, 4.
79. Ibid., 5.
80. Ibid.
81. Dees, Lawyer’s Journey, 23.
82. Glenn Lewis, “Uneasy Peace Predicted as Shrimping Season Nears,” Houston Post, May 14, 1981, 24A.
83. Deposition of Nam Van Nguyen, 81.
84. Ibid., 86.
85. Jason Sokol, There Goes My Everything: White Southerners in the Age of Civil Rights, 1945–1975 (New York: Vintage, 2007), 180–85, 188. See also Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law, 1870–1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), and Robert H. Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform: A Study of the Progressive Movement (New York: Ivan R. Dee, 1988) and The Search for Order, 1877–1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1966), for more information on business, economics, and trust law during the Progressive movement.
86. “Injunction Bars Action against Viet Shrimpers,” Houston Post, May 12, 1981, 1.
87. Ibid.
88. Ibid.
89. Ibid.
90. “Shrimp Season’s Opening Day One of the Quietest in Years,” Houston Post, May 16, 1981, 7A.
91. Ibid.
92. Final Judgment, Vietnamese Fishermen’s Association v. The Knights of the Ku Klux, June 9, 1982, 543 F. Supp. 198, 3.
93. Ibid., 12.
94. Ibid.
95. Ibid.
96. Ibid., 16.
97. Ibid., 17.
98. Ibid., 13.
99. Ibid., 24
1. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary of Asian American Hotel Owners Association (Atlanta: AAHOA, 2014), 23.
2. See Jefferson R. Cowie, Capital Moves: RCA’s Seventy-Year Quest for Cheap Labor (New York: New Press, 2001); Nelson Lichtenstein, The Retail Revolution: How Walmart Created a Brave New World of Business (New York: Picador, 2010); Bethany Moreton, To Serve God and Walmart: The Making of Christian Free Enterprise (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009); and Kevin Kruse, One Nation under God: How Corporate American Invented Christian America (New York: Basic Books, 2015), for more on business in the South in the post–World War II era as well as the connections between Christianity, the rise of the New Right, and corporatization.
3. See Howard Morgan, The Hotel Industry in the United States: Small Business in Transition (Tucson: Bureau of Business and Public Research, University of Arizona, 1964); John A. Jakle, Keith A. Sculle, and Jefferson R. Rogers, The Motel in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); and Warren James Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Autocamp to Motel, 1910–1945 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), for more on the history of the hotel/motel industry in the United States.
4. See Paul Groth, Living Downtown: The History of Residential Hotels in the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); William P. Jones, The March on Washington: Jobs, Freedom, and the Forgotten History of Civil Rights (New York: Norton, 2013); Juliet E. K. Walker, The History of Black Business in America: Capitalism, Race, and Entrepreneurship (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009); Robert E. Weems, Desegregating the Dollar: African American Consumerism in the Twentieth Century (New York: NYU Press, 1998); and Tom Lewis, Divided Highways: Building the Interstate Highways, Transforming American Life (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2013), for more on black-owned businesses and discrimination.
5. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 17.
6. See Pravin Sheth, Indians in America: One Stream, Two Waves, Three Generations (Jaipur, India: Rawat Publications, 2001); Shinder Thandi, “Migrating to Mother Country: South Asian Settlement and the Post-War Boom, 1947–1980,” in A South Asian History of Britain: Four Centuries of Peoples from the Indian Sub-Continent, ed. Michael H. Fisher, Shompa Lahiri, and Shinder Thandi (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007), 32–56; Maritsa Poros, Modern Migrations: Gujarati Indian Networks in New York and London (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2010); Vinay Lal, The Other Indians: A Political and Cultural History of South Asians in America (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 2008); Usha Jain, The Gujaratis of San Francisco ((New York: AMS Press, 1989); Arthur Helweg and Usha Helweg, An Immigrant Success Story: East Indians in America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001); Roger Daniels, History of Indian Immigration to the United States: An Interpretive History (New York: Asia Society, 1989); and Govind Bhatka, Patels: A Gujarati Community History in the United States (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 2000).
7. Padma Rangaswamy, Namaste America: Indian Immigrants in an American Metropolis (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), 3.
8. T. Green, “Foreigners Buying Up U.S. Motels,” Los Angeles Times, May 29, 1977, C5.
9. See Pawan Dhingra, Life behind the Lobby: Indian American Motel Owners and the American Dream (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2012); Hein Steerflek, “Gujarati Entrepreneurship: Historical Continuity against Changing Perspectives,” Economic and Political Weekly 32 (1997): M2–M10; Rebecca Raijman and Marta Tienda, “Immigrants’ Pathway to Business Ownership: A Comparative Ethnic Perspective,” International Migration Review 34 (2000): 682–706; Anjali Sahay, “Indian Diaspora in the United States and Brain Gain: Remittances, Return, and Network Approaches,” in Sociology of Diaspora: A Reader, edited by Ajaya Kumar Sahoo and Brij Maharah (New Delhi, India: Rawat Publications, 2007), 940–79; and Gary Hess, “The Forgotten Asian Americans: The East Indian Community in the United States,” Pacific Historical Review 43 (1974): 576–96.
10. Author’s telephone interview with Lee Duschoff, September 16, 2015. See also Edna Bonacich, “Making It in America: A Social Evaluation of the Ethics of Immigrant Entrepreneurship,” Sociological Perspectives 30 (October 1987): 446–66; Michael Hout, “The Possibility of Community: How Indian American Motel Owners Negotiate Competition and Solidarity,” Journal of Asian American Studies 12 (2009): 321–46; Ivan Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare among Chinese, Japanese, and Blacks (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); Jimmy Sanders and Victor Nee, “Immigrant Self-Employment: The Family as Social Capital and the Value of Human Capital,” American Sociological Review 61 (1996): 231–49; and Arthur Sakamoto, Kimberly Goyette, and Chang Hwan Kim, “Socioeconomic Attainments of Asian Americans,” Annual Review of Sociology 35 (2009): 255–76, for more on historical and sociological approaches to Indian business tactics and experiences.
11. Author’s telephone interview with H. P. Rama, Monday, October 6, 2015.
12. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 18–19.
13. “Workers Drill with Sentra Test Cars,” Nashville Tennesseean, February 8, 1985, 11.
14. Sheng-Mei Ma, The Deathly Embrace: Orientalism and Asian American Identity (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 77–81; Helen Zia, Asian American Dreams: The Emergence of an American People (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001), 59, 63–65, 72–73, 80–81.
15. Interview with Duschoff.
16. Leslie Bow, Partly Colored: Asian Americans and Racial Anomaly in the Segregated South (New York: NYU Press, 2011), 120, 142.
17. Interview with Rama.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. Tunku Varadarajan, “A Patel Cartel?,” New York Times, July 4, 1999, 17.
21. Interview with Rama.
22. Ibid.; AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 21.
23. Varadarajan, “Patel Cartel?,” 17.
24. Interview with Rama.
25. Ibid.
26. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 21.
27. Interview with Duschoff; interview with Rama.
28. See Lisa Mar, Brokering Belonging: Chinese in Canada’s Exclusion Era, 1885–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Victoria M. Wolcott, Remaking Respectability: African American Women in Interwar Detroit (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001); Eiichiro Azuma, Between Two Empires: Race, History, and Transnationalism in Japanese America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); and Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Baptist Black Church, 1880–1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), for more on respectability politics in history and in different ethnic and racial communities.
29. Interview with Mike Leven, August 12, 2015.
30. Ibid.; AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 20.
31. Interview with Rama.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. Interview with Duschoff.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid.
37. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 22.
38. Interview with Duschoff.
39. “Our History: An Overview,” AAHOA Annual Report (2014), 46.
40. Interview with Duschoff.
41. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 25; “Our History,” 46.
42. Interview with Rama.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. Interview with Leven.
47. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 22.
48. Ibid.
49. Author’s telephone interview with Ravi Patel, September 16, 2015.
50. Interview with Leven.
51. Interview with Patel.
52. Interview with Duschoff.
53. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 21.
54. Ibid., 29; interview with Duschoff.
55. Interview with Rama.
56. Ibid.
57. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 23.
58. Interview with Duschoff.
59. Interview with Rama.
60. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 30; “Our History,” 47.
61. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 22.
62. Interview with Rama.
63. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 28.
64. Ibid. See also David W. Koch, “The Proposed ‘Small Business Franchise Act of 1999’: The End of Franchising as We Know It?” (paper presented at the Federal Bar Association Annual Convention, Cleveland, Ohio, September 22, 2000), for an example of arguments presented against the act.
65. AAHOA, 25th Anniversary, 32.
66. Ibid., 33.
67. Interview with Rama.
68. Interview with Leven.
1. Damien Cave, “In Florida, an Initiative Intended to End Bias Is Killed,” New York Times, November 5, 2008, A22.
2. Ibid.; Rasha Madkour, “Amendment 1 Targets Florida’s Anti-Asian Land Law,” Tampa Tribune, October 18, 2008.
3. Karan Mahajan, “The Two Asian Americas,” New Yorker (October 21 2015), http://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/the-two-asian-americas (accessed December 11, 2015).
4. “Asian Americans Intervene in Georgia Voting Rights Lawsuit,” July 29, 2010, http://aaldef.org/press-releases/press-release/asian-americans-intervene-in-georgia-voting-rights-lawsuit.html (accessed December 20, 2015).
5. R. G. Ratcliffe, “Texas Lawmaker Suggests Asians Adopt Easier Names,” Houston Chronicle, April 8, 2009, http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Texas-lawmaker-suggests-Asians-adopt-easier-names-1550512.php (accessed December 20, 2015).
6. Lisa Lowe, Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 8.
7. Derrick A. Bell Jr., “Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest-Convergence Dilemma,” Harvard Law Review 93 (1980): 523–25.