1. “Georgia’s Water Crisis: The Power of Water,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, November 18, 2007, A1. E-mail announcement, attendee list, and agenda minutes for the “Southeastern Drought and Reliability Meeting” (November 16, 2007) provided to the author by Southeastern Power Administration, Freedom of Information Act Request #2011-0032.
2. “Drought Stricken Georgia Says It Will Sue over Water,” CNN.com, December 2, 2012, http://edition.cnn.com/2007/US/10/18/pip.atlantadrought/index.html (July 14, 2013); “Water Worries: Ban on Use Tighten,” Athens Banner Herald, September 15, 2007, http://onlineathens.com/stories/091507/news_20070915060.shtml (July 14, 2013); “Drought-Stricken South Facing Tough Choices,” New York Times, October 16, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/16/us/16drought.html (July 14, 2013); “Drought Anxiety Rises as Water Levels Fall,” USA Today, November 4, 2007, http://www.usatoday.com/weather/news/2007-11-01-drought-anxiety_N.htm (July 14, 2013).
3. “Metro Atlanta’s Need for Water: Three Months from a Mud Hole,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, October 11, 2007, A1; “Coke, Pepsi: Big Cuts in Water Use Unlikely,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, October 23, 2007, 1D; Dale E. Dodson, map, “Heavy Demands on Our Water,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution (October 26, 2007), http://www.ajc.com//metro/content/metro/stories/2007/10/26/watermap.html (April 10, 2012).
4. “Watering Ban Now the Widest: ‘Unprecedented’ Situation,” Athens Banner Herald, September 29, 2007, http://onlineathens.com/stories/092907/news_20070929061.shtml (July 14, 2013).
5. “Rain Stops, but 8 Are Dead in Southeast Floods,” New York Times, September 22, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/23/us/23rain.html (July 14, 2013); “Atlanta Flood: After Drought, Residents Caught by Surprise,” Christian Science Monitor, September 24, 2009, http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/2009/0924/p02s02-usgn.html (July 14, 2013); “Flood Death Toll at 9,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, September 26, 2009, http://www.ajc.com/news/flood-death-toll-at-142739.html (July 14, 2013); “Federal Officials: September’s Flood ‘Off the Charts,’” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, November 4, 2009, http://www.ajc.com/news/news/local/federal-officials-septembers-flood-off-the-charts/nQYyH/ (July 14, 2013); “Failure to Control Storm Water Makes Floods More Likely,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, February 21, 2010, http://www.ajc.com/news/failure-to-control-storm-318983.html (July 14, 2013).
6. U.S. District Court, Middle District of Florida, Memorandum and Order, Re: Tri-State Water Rights Litigation, Case No. 3:07-md-01 (PAM/JRK), Document 264, July 17, 2009, 11 (Hartsfield quote), http://www.atlantaregional.com/File%20Library/Environment/ep_tri-state-water-litigation-order-090717-mdfla-07md1-doc-264.pdf (December 2, 2012). Georgia parties successfully appealed this order (Re: MDL-1824 Tri-State Water Rights Litigation, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit, No. 09–14657, D.C. Docket No. 07–00001 MD-J-PAM-JRK, June 28, 2011, http://www.ca11.uscourts.gov/opinions/ops/200914657.pdf). Alabama and Florida parties asked the U.S. Supreme Court to review the appeal, but the court declined to hear the case; see “High Court Grants Georgia Water-Wars Victory,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, June 25, 2012, http://www.ajc.com/news/news/local/high-court-grants-georgia-water-wars-victory/nQWmm/ (July 14, 2013).
7. “Perdue Forms Team to Fight Water Ruling,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, July 23, 2009, http://www.ajc.com/news/news/local-govt-politics/perdue-forms-team-to-fight-water-ruling/nQJFH/ (July 14, 2013). Garrett retired from Georgia Power, and his corporate bio is no longer available: http://www.georgiapower.com/about/ceo.asp (March 9, 2010).
8. “Judge: States’ Water Talks Can Be Secret,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, January 8, 2010, http://www.ajc.com/news/judge-states-water-talks-270323.html (July 14, 2013).
9. The Atlanta Regional Commission covers a 10-county area with 4 million residents; see http://www.atlantaregional.com/. The Metropolitan North Georgia Water Planning District covers a slightly larger area, including 15 counties; see http://www.northgeorgiawater.com/. The Metro Atlanta Chamber of Commerce shepherds 28 counties and 5.3 million people; see www.metroatlantachamber.com/.
10. Governor Sonny Perdue, Water Contingency Task Force: Final Report, December 21, 2009, 9–12, and Appendix 3, Findings and Recommendations, 123–41, http://sonnyperdue.georgia.gov/00/channel_modifieddate/0,2096,78006749_154453222,00.html (July 14, 2013).
11. “Watch Out for Our Water,” Augusta Chronicle, December 6, 2009, http://chronicle.augusta.com/stories/2009/12/06/edi_558272.shtml (July 14, 2013); Senator Jim Butterworth, “Hey Atlanta, Hands Off Our Water,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, December 12, 2009, http://www.ajc.com/opinion/hey-atlanta-hands-off-237175.html (July 14, 2013); Representative Alan Powell, “Hands Off the Savannah River,” Savannah Morning News, December 12, 2009, http://savannahnow.com/column/2009–12–12/powell-hands-savannah-river (July 14, 2013).
12. The General Assembly considered SB462 and HB1301. An interbasin transfer (IBT) moves water from one river basin into another. For example, some of the IBTs discussed here would have moved raw water from the Savannah River basin, which drains into the Atlantic Ocean, into the Chattahoochee River basin, which drains into the Gulf of Mexico. For reference, data from the Georgia Environmental Protection Division shows that in 2008, one dozen IBTs transferred more than 1 million gallons per day from one basin to another. See Georgia Water Coalition, “Interbasin Transfers: Briefing Document,” November 2010, http://www.garivers.org/gawater/pdf%20files/GWC%20Interbasin%20Transfers%20Briefing%20Document.pdf (July 13, 2013); “Water Transfers Need Supervision,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, March 3, 2010, http://www.ajc.com/news/news/opinion/water-transfers-need-supervision/nQdc8/ (July 13, 2013).
13. “Rural Legislators Push Interbasin Transfer Rules,” Atlanta Business Chronicle, April 22, 2010, http://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/stories/2010/04/26/story4.html?b=1272254400^3235961&s=industry&i=energy (July 13, 2013).
14. The American South has also been a vessel for race, labor, and economic “problems”; see James C. Giesen, Boll Weevil Blues: Cotton, Myth, and Power in the American South (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), and Natalie J. Ring, The Problem South: Region, Empire, and the New Liberal State, 1880–1930 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012).
15. Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983).
16. David E. Nye, Consuming Power: A Social History of American Energies (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998); Alfred W. Crosby, Children of the Sun: A History of Humanity’s Unappeasable Appetite for Energy (New York: Norton, 2006); Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991); Thomas G. Andrews, Killing for Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008); Christopher F. Jones, “A Landscape of Energy Abundance: Anthracite Coal Canals and the Roots of American Fossil Fuel Dependence, 1820–1860,” Environmental History 15, no. 3 (July 2010): 449–84; Daniel Yergin, The Quest: Energy, Security, and the Remaking of the Modern World (New York: Penguin, 2011); “Oil in American History,” a special issue of the Journal of American History (June 2012).
17. See the Sandia National Laboratories website: http://www.sandia.gov/energy-water/.
18. “Tallulah the Terrible,” Madisonian, July 12, 1912, 4. See also Andrew Beecher Mc-Callister, “‘A Source of Pleasure, Profit, and Pride’: Tourism, Industrialization, and Conservation at Tallulah Falls, Georgia, 1820–1915” (M.A. thesis, University of Georgia, 2002).
19. Disaster histories include the following: a history of a private dam’s failure, David G. McCullough, The Johnstown Flood (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968); a history of an agricultural drought, Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979); and a history of flooding exacerbated by failed levee technology, Pete Daniel, Deep’n as It Come: The 1927 Mississippi River Flood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), and John M. Barry, Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997). I am only aware of two historical accounts of drought in the American South: One addresses Arkansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and West Virginia; see Nan Elizabeth Woodruff, As Rare as Rain: Federal Relief in the Great Southern Drought of 1930–31 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985). A second addresses irrigation history in Mississippi and Alabama; see Valerie Grim, “The High Cost of Water: African American Farmers and the Politics of Irrigation in the Rural South, 1980–2000,” Agricultural History 76, no. 2 (Spring 2002): 338–53.
20. Ted Steinberg, Acts of God: The Unnatural History of Natural Disaster in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), xvi, xxii; National Weather Service, “What Is Drought?” Public Fact Sheet (May 2008), http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/DroughtPublic2.pdf.
21. Few topics have been as central to the growth of environmental history as the relationship of water to power in the American West, and the central debate in western water history largely emerged from Donald Worster’s Rivers of Empire and its critics. In Worster’s interpretation, irrigation in the arid West reorganized communities in ways that were detrimental to both people and nature. The “free” West, a region defined by aridity and settled with an individual pioneer spirit, evolved into a monolithic and oppressive “hydraulic society” where a water elite co-opted federal authority (from the Bureau of Reclamation) and expertise to use water as an instrument of control in a highly capitalized agricultural economy. This interpretation has been challenged as colleagues found Worster’s West too specific to California and that he ignored complex cultural and environmental realities that produced diverse water management institutions based on specific local conditions. One critic argued that Worster overstated the presence of omnipotent agriculture-water elites, and another that his depiction of nature dominated by modern waterworks missed the extent to which environmental conditions reshaped and compromised the very systems designed to control nature. As Worster’s critics revealed, river societies in the urban and agricultural American West were never as coercive as the empires he described, nor was nature steamrolled by culturally inspired choices. For example, Richard White has provided the most useful example of a “hybrid” environment where nature and culture left a collective imprint on power relations in the Pacific Northwest. The Columbia River, as an “organic machine,” was a dynamic place where different cultures learned about the river’s nature through their labor. See Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York: Pantheon, 1985); Donald Worster, “Hydraulic Society in California,” in Worster, Under Western Skies: Nature and History in the American West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 53–63; Norris Hundley Jr., The Great Thirst: Californians and Water: A History (1992; rev. ed., Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Donald J. Pisani, To Reclaim a Divided West: Water, Law, and Public Policy, 1848–1902 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992); Richard White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995); Donald J. Pisani, Water, Land, and Law in the West: The Limits of Public Policy, 1850–1920 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996); Mark Fiege, Irrigated Eden: The Making of an Agricultural Landscape in the American West (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999).
22. Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water (New York: Penguin, 1986; rev. and updated ed., 1993), chap. 9, quote on 307.
23. Thomas Lunsford Stokes and Lamar Dodd, The Savannah (New York: Rinehart, 1951); Henry Savage Jr., River of the Carolinas: The Santee (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968); E. Merton Coulter, Georgia Waters: Tallulah Falls, Madison Springs, Scull Shoals, and the Okefenokee Swamp (Athens: Georgia Historical Quarterly, 1965); Harvey H. Jackson III, Rivers of History: Life on the Coosa, Tallapoosa, Cahaba, and Alabama (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1995); Lynn Willoughby, Flowing through Time: A History of the Lower Chattahoochee River (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999); Edward J. Cashin, The Brightest Arm of the Savannah: The Augusta Canal, 1845–2000 (Augusta, Ga.: Augusta Canal Authority, 2002); John Lane, Chattooga: Descending into the Myth of Deliverance River (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004); Doug Woodward, Wherever Waters Flow: A Lifelong Love Affair with Wild Rivers (Franklin, N.C.: Headwaters Publishing, 2006); Janisse Ray, Drifting into Darien: A Personal and Natural History of the Altamaha River (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011). For corporate histories, see Wade H. Wright, History of the Georgia Power Company, 1855–1956 (Atlanta: Georgia Power Company, 1957); Jack Riley, Carolina Power and Light Company, 1908–1958: A Corporate Biography, Tracing the Origin and Development of Electric Service in Much of the Carolinas (Raleigh, N.C.: Edwards and Broughton, 1958); Robert F. Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas: The Duke Power Company, 1904–1997 (Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2001); Martha Elrod and Julie Groce, Energizing Georgia: The History of Georgia Power, 1883–2004 (Macon, Ga.: Indigo Custom Publishing, 2004); Leah Rawls Atkins, “Developed for the Service of Alabama”: The Centennial History of the Alabama Power Company, 1906–2006 (Birmingham: Alabama Power Co., 2006); and Dub Taft and Sam Heys, Big Bets: Decisions and Leaders That Shaped Southern Company (Atlanta: Southern Company, 2011).
24. Broadus Mitchell, The Rise of the Cotton Mills in the South (Baltimore, 1921), 263; J. Wayne Flynt, “The New Deal and Southern Labor,” in The New Deal and the South, ed. James C. Cobb and Michael V. Namorato (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1984); Gavin Wright, Old South, New South: Revolutions in the Southern Economy since the Civil War (New York: Basic Books, 1986); C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1951); George Brown Tindall, The Emergence of the New South, 1913–1945 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967).
25. David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880–1920 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982); Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones, and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Allen Tullos, Habits of Industry: White Culture and the Transformation of the Carolina Piedmont (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands, 1910–1948 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
26. James C. Cobb, The Selling of the South: The Southern Crusade for Industrial Development, 1936–1990 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Bruce J. Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt: Federal Policy, Economic Development, and the Transformation of the South, 1938–1980 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1994); Numan V. Bartley, The New South, 1945–1980 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995); Stephen Wallace Taylor, The New South’s New Frontier: A Social History of Economic Development in Southwestern North Carolina (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001); Sarah T. Phillips, This Land, This Nation: Conservation, Rural America, and the New Deal (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
27. Preston J. Hubbard, Origins of the TVA: The Muscle Shoals Controversy, 1920–1932 (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1961); Thomas K. McCraw, TVA and the Power Fight, 1933–1939 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1971); Arthur Ernest Morgan, The Making of the TVA (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1974); North Callahan, TVA: Bridge over Troubled Waters (South Brunswick, N.J.: A. S. Barnes, 1980); Philip Selznick, TVA and the Grass Roots: A Study of Politics and Organization (New York: Harper and Row, 1980); Michael J. McDonald and John Muldowny, TVA and the Dispossessed: The Resettlement of Population in the Norris Dam Area (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1982); Erwin C. Hargrove and Paul K. Conkin, eds., TVA: Fifty Years of Grass-Roots Bureaucracy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Karen M. O’Neill, “Why the TVA Remains Unique: Interest Groups and the Defeat of New Deal River Planning,” Rural Sociology 67, no. 2 (June 2002): 163–82. For Corps history, see Jeffrey K. Stine, “United States Army Corps of Engineers,” in Government Agencies, ed. Donald R. Whitnah, Greenwood Encyclopedia of American Institutions (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983), 513–16, and Martin Melosi, Precious Commodity: Providing Water for America’s Cities (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011), 12–20.
28. Mart Stewart, “What Nature Suffers to Groe”: Life, Labor, and Landscape on the Georgia Coast, 1680–1920 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996; reprint, 2002); Judith Ann Carney, Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001).
29. See, for example, Daniel, Deep’n as It Come; Jeffrey K. Stine, Mixing the Waters: Environment, Politics, and the Building of the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway (Akron: University of Akron Press, 1993); Barry, Rising Tide; Ari Kelman, A River and Its City: The Nature of Landscape in New Orleans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Mikko Saikku, This Delta, This Land: An Environmental History of the Yazoo-Mississippi Floodplain (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2005); Craig E. Colten, An Unnatural Metropolis: Wresting New Orleans from Nature (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005); Karen M. O’Neill, Rivers by Design: State Power and the Origins of U.S. Flood Control (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2006); and Christopher Morris, The Big Muddy: An Environmental History of the Mississippi and Its Peoples, from Hernando de Soto to Hurricane Katrina (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).
30. Donald Worster’s well-known book Dust Bowl examines the consequences of drought in Kansas and Oklahoma in the 1930s for agroecological systems. I am aware of only two historical accounts of drought in the American South. The first addresses Arkansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and West Virginia in the 1930s; see Woodruff, As Rare as Rain. The second addresses drought and irrigation history in Mississippi and Alabama after 1970; see Grim, “High Cost of Water.”
31. David Emory Stooksbury, “Historical Droughts in Georgia and Drought Assessment and Management,” proceedings of the 2003 Georgia Water Resources Conference, April 23–24, 2003, at the University of Georgia, Athens.
32. Amber Ignatius, a University of Georgia doctoral candidate in geography, has presented on multiple occasions a spectacular compilation of geospatial data sets that illustrate the historic distribution and purpose of ponds, impoundments, and reservoirs throughout the Chattahoochee River basin in Georgia. Ignatius is currently assessing the cumulative hydrologic impacts of impoundments in the upper Chattahoochee River. For more information, see http://geography.uga.edu/article/big-water-little-water/.
33. “The Great Lakes of Georgia” site is no longer functional (http://www.greatlakesofgeorgia.com); see also Georgia Public Broadcasting, http://www.gpb.org/georgia-outdoors-classic/georgias-great-lakes (September 3, 2013). For “Georgia’s Lake Country,” visit http://www.oconee.org/index.php (July 14, 2013).
34. Thomas L. Crisman, “Natural Lakes of the Southeastern United States: Origin, Structure, and Function,” in Biodiversity of the Southeastern United States: Aquatic Communities, ed. Courtney Thomas Hackney, S. Marshall Adams, and William Haywood Martin (New York: Wiley, 1992), 475–538, esp. 478.
35. Blue Ridge and Coastal Plain environmental histories are more common than Piedmont stories: Jack Temple Kirby, Poquosin: A Study of Rural Landscape and Society (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Stewart, “What Nature Suffers to Groe”; Donald Edward Davis, Where There Are Mountains: An Environmental History of the Southern Appalachians (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000); Daniel S. Pierce, The Great Smokies: From Natural Habitat to National Park (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2000); Margaret Lynn Brown, The Wild East: A Biography of the Great Smoky Mountains (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000); Carney, Black Rice; Timothy Silver, Mount Mitchell and the Black Mountains: An Environmental History of the Highest Peaks in Eastern America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Albert G. Way, Conserving Longleaf: Herbert Stoddard and the Rise of Ecological Land Management (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011); and Kathryn Newfont, Blue Ridge Commons: Environmental Activism and Forest History in Western North Carolina (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012).
36. Matthew D. Lassiter and Joseph Crespino, eds., The Myth of Southern Exceptionalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Cynthia Barnett, Mirage: Florida and the Vanishing Water of the Eastern U.S. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007); Robert Glennon, Unquenchable: America’s Water Crisis and What to Do about It (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2009).
1. John Muir, “Through the River Country of Georgia,” in Muir, A Thousand-Mile Walk to the Gulf (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916), 48–63.
2. Donald Worster, A Passion for Nature: The Life of John Muir (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 122.
3. Mart A. Stewart, “If John Muir Had Been an Agrarian: American Environmental History West and South,” Environment and History 11, no. 2 (May 2005): 139–62.
4. Muir, Thousand-Mile Walk. For delineations between organic (animal, wood, water, and wind) and mineral (coal, natural gas, petroleum, and uranium) economies as well as the limits of and transitions between these energy regimes, see E. A. Wrigley, Continuity, Chance, and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988); David E. Nye, Consuming Power: A Social History of American Energies (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998; 3rd ed., 2001); E. A. Wrigley, Poverty, Progress, and Population (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004); and Alfred W. Crosby, Children of the Sun: A History of Humanity’s Unappeasable Appetite for Energy (New York: Norton, 2006).
5. Nye argues, “The South chose a less energy-intensive form of industrial development, based on muscle power and local mills,” and simplifies that notion by stating that “part of the explanation is geographical [since] the North was better situated to exploit water power” (Consuming Power, 49). For alternative interpretations of nineteenth-century mill development, see Bess Beatty, “Lowells of the South: Northern Influences on the Nineteenth-Century North Carolina Textile Industry,” Journal of Southern History 53, no. 1 (February 1987): 37–62, and Tom Downey, “Riparian Rights and Manufacturing in Antebellum South Carolina: William Gregg and the Origins of the ‘Industrial Mind,’” Journal of Southern History 65, no. 1 (February 1999): 77–108. For an exemplary interpretation of New England’s early industrial and environmental history, see Theodore Steinberg, Nature Incorporated: Industrialization and the Waters of New England (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
6. Muir, Thousand-Mile Walk.
7. Mart Stewart, “What Nature Suffers to Groe”: Life, Labor, and Landscape on the Georgia Coast, 1680–1920 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996); Judith Ann Carney, Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001).
8. L. L. Gaddy, A Naturalist’s Guide to the Southern Blue Ridge Front: Linville Gorge, North Carolina, to Tallulah Gorge, Georgia (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2000), 4–6; Leonard M. Adkins, Walking the Blue Ridge: A Guide to the Trails of the Blue Ridge Parkway, 3rd ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 3–4.
9. Sharyn Kane and Richard Keeton, Beneath These Waters: Archeological and Historical Studies of 11,500 Years along the Savannah River (Savannah, Ga.: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Interagency Archeological Services Division, National Park Service, 1993), 9; Donald E. Davis, Craig E. Colten, Megan Kate Nelson, Barbara L. Allen, and Mikko Saikku, Southern United States: An Environmental History, Nature and Human Societies Series (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2006), 1, 7–8.
10. William Bartram, The Travels of William Bartram, naturalist’s edition, edited by Francis Harper (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1998).
11. Betty Wood, Slavery in Colonial Georgia, 1730–1775 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984).
12. Bartram, Travels, 237; Edward M. Riley, “The Survey of the Historic Sites of the Clark Hill Reservoir Area, South Carolina and Georgia” (Richmond, Va.: National Park Service, June 1949), 10–11; Edward J. Cashin, The Story of Augusta (Augusta, Ga.: Richmond County Board of Education, 1980), 11.
13. Bartram, Travels, 196–98; Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500–1800 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
14. Henry Savage Jr., River of the Carolinas: The Santee (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 331; E. Merton Coulter, Georgia Waters: Tallulah Falls, Madison Springs, Scull Shoals, and the Okefenokee Swamp (Athens: Georgia Historical Quarterly, 1965), 84–111; Cashin, Story of Augusta, 59; Michael C. White, Waterways and Water Mills (Warrenton, Ga.: C.S.R.A. Press, 1995), 202–10; Stewart, “What Nature Suffers to Groe,” 71. On shoals and fishing, see Kenneth E. Sassaman, People of the Shoals: Stallings Culture of the Savannah River Valley (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006), 114–32; Kane and Keeton, Beneath These Waters, 44–49; and George Frederick Frick and Raymond Phineas Stearns, Mark Catesby, the Colonial Audubon (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961), 26.
15. Kane and Keeton, Beneath These Waters, chap. 3. See also The History Group, Inc., Historical Investigations of the Richard B. Russell Multiple Resource Area (Atlanta: History Group, 1981), prepared for the Archeological Services Division, National Park Service, and funded by the Savannah District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 177–89, and Charles E. Orser Jr., Annette M. Nekola, and James L. Roark, Exploring the Rustic life: Multidisciplinary Research at Millwood Plantation, a Large Piedmont Plantation in Abbeville County, South Carolina, and Elbert County, Georgia, Russell Papers, 3 vols. (Atlanta: Archeological Services, National Park Service, 1987).
16. Kane and Keeton, Beneath These Waters, 174.
17. Angela Lakwete, Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003).
18. Kane and Keeton, Beneath These Waters, 176; Steven Stoll, Larding the Lean Earth: Soil and Society in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2002).
19. James Edward Calhoun, Plantation Journal, 1930–1834, Financial and Legal Papers, ser. 2, folder 11, JEC. The 1833–34 summer droughts may have been the initial years of an “extended dry” period that lasted from 1834 to 1861, and the initial years of the midwestern “Civil War” drought; see Richard Seager, Alexandria Tzanova, and Jennifer Nakamura, “Drought in the Southeastern United States: Causes, Variability over the Last Millennium, and the Potential for Future Hydroclimate Change,” Journal of Climate 22 (October 1, 2009): 5021–45; Celine Herwiger, Richard Seager, and Edward Cook, “North American Droughts of the Mid to Late Nineteenth Century: A History, Simulation, and Implication for Mediaeval Drought,” The Holocene 16, no. 2 (2006): 159–71; and N. Pederson et al., “A Long-Term Perspective on a Modern Drought in the American Southeast,” Environmental Research Letters 7 (2012): 1–9.
20. James Edward Calhoun, Plantation Journal, 1930–1834, Financial and Legal Papers, ser. 2, folder 11, JEC.
21. For Calhoun quote, see History Group, Historical Investigations of the Richard B. Russell Multiple Resource Area, 185. For the distinction of “men of property” and “men of capital,” see Downey, “Riparian Rights and Manufacturing.”
22. “Lowell of the South,” Augusta Chronicle and Sentinel, January 2, 1845.
23. Savage, River of the Carolinas, 241–47; Ronald E. Shaw, Canals for a Nation: The Canal Era in the United States, 1790–1860 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993), 15–18, 123–24; Robert J. Kapsch, Historic Canals and Waterways of South Carolina (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2010), 21–53.
24. For the best history of the Augusta Canal, see Edward J. Cashin, The Brightest Arm of the Savannah: The Augusta Canal, 1845–2000 (Augusta, Ga.: Augusta Canal Authority, 2002).
25. Steinberg, Nature Incorporated, 3.
26. Downey, “Riparian Rights and Manufacturing,” 93–95.
27. Stoll, Larding the Lean Earth.
28. Baldwin and Bigelow, both fixtures in New England’s institutional waterpower management, served as investors and consultants in southern canal projects, including the Augusta Canal. Phillips, one of the Augusta Canal survey team members, was a Pennsylvania native whose father had supervised the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal’s construction. Francis, the famous Lowell waterpower and canal engineer, also participated in the Augusta Canal’s design and consultation process in the 1840s. See Steinberg, Nature Incorporated, 88–95; Cashin, Brightest Arm, 54; Shaw, Canals for a Nation, 124; and Robert L. Spude, Augusta Canal, Historic American Engineering Record (HAER), GA-5 (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Interior, 1977), 7.
29. Charles Grier Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815–1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Harry L. Watson, “Slavery and Development in a Dual Economy: The South and the Market Revolution,” in The Market Revolution in America: Social, Political, and Religious Expressions, 1800–1880, ed. Melvyn Stokes and Stephen Conway (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996), 43–73; Joseph P. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South: Central Georgia, 1800–1880 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992). Harry L. Watson discussed the market revolution’s advance in the American South and the consequences for upcountry farmers and fish from the perspective of mill dams; see “‘The Common Rights of Mankind’: Subsistence, Shad, and Commerce in the Early Republican South,” Journal of American History 83, no. 1 (June 1996): 13–43
30. Downey, “Riparian Rights and Manufacturing”; Bruce Eelman, Entrepreneurs in the Southern Upcountry: Commercial Culture in Spartanburg, South Carolina, 1845–1880 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2008).
31. Cashin, Brightest Arm, 66–68.
32. Shaw, Canals for a Nation, 123–24; Spude, Augusta Canal, 5, 7, n. 25, n. 38.
33. U.S. Department of the Interior, Census Office, Statistics of Power and Machinery Employed in Manufactures: Reports of the Water-Power of the United States, pt. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1885), 127–28.
34. John H. Logan quoted in Stanley Wayne Trimble, Man-Induced Soil Erosion on the Southern Piedmont, 1700–1970 (Ankeny, Iowa: Soil Conservation Society of America, 1974), 57.
35. U.S. Department of the Interior, Statistics of Power, 108.
36. Carville Earle, “The Myth of the Southern Soil Miner: Macrohistory, Agricultural Innovation, and Environmental Change,” in The Ends of the Earth: Perspectives on Modern Environmental History, ed. Donald Worster (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 175–210; “land killers” from Edmund Ruffin, quoted in Stanley Trimble, “Perspectives on the History of Soil Erosion Control in the Eastern United States,” Agricultural History 59, no. 2 (April 1985): 175; “erosional tinderbox,” Stanley Trimble quoted in Kane and Keeton, Beneath These Waters, 172. See also Paul S. Sutter, “What Gullies Mean: Georgia’s ‘Little Grand Canyon’ and Southern Environmental History,” Journal of Southern History 76, no. 3 (August 2010): 579–616.
37. Douglas E. Facey and M. J. Van Den Avyle, Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South Atlantic): American Shad (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1986); John McPhee, The Founding Fish (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002).
38. Lynn Willoughby, Flowing through Time: A History of the Lower Chattahoochee River (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999), 78. William Cronon charts the flow of commodities and “The Geography of Capital” in his classic Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: Norton, 1991).
39. Cashin, Brightest Arm, chap. 4.
40. Ibid., 47, 54.
41. “The Upper River,” Augusta Chronicle, February 18, 1888, 8.
42. Cashin, Story of Augusta, 65.
43. “Drowned—Inquest,” Augusta Chronicle and Sentinel, April 5, 1859.
44. Spude, Augusta Canal, n. 30.
45. For example, see John H. Logan, A History of the Upper Country of South Carolina from the Earliest Periods to the Close of the War of Independence (Columbia, S.C.: P. B. Glass, and Charleston, S.C.: S. G. Courtenay & Co., 1859), 1:75, and Christopher J. Manganiello, “Fish Tales and the Conservation State,” Southern Cultures 20, no. 3 (Fall 2014): 43–62.
46. U.S. Department of the Interior, Statistics of Power, 128.
47. Cashin, Brightest Arm, chap. 7; Charles B. Dew, Ironmaker to the Confederacy: Joseph R. Anderson and the Tredegar Iron Works (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966). Civil War, environmental, and energy history have converged; see Jack T. Kirby, “The American Civil War: An Environmental View,” on the National Humanities Center website, Nature Transformed: The Environment in American History, http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nattrans/ntuseland/essays/amcwar.htm (February 15, 2013), and Mark Fiege, “Gettysburg and the Organic Nature of the American Civil War,” in Natural Enemy, Natural Ally: Toward an Environmental History of Warfare, ed. Richard P. Tucker and Edmund Russell (Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 2004), 93–109.
48. Willoughby, Flowing through Time, 88–89; Harvey H. Jackson III, Rivers of History: Life on the Coosa, Tallapoosa, Cahaba, and Alabama (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1995), 104, 113–15.
49. Paul M. Gaston, The New South Creed: A Study in Southern Mythmaking (New York: Knopf, 1970), 64–70.
50. James W. Milner, Appendix 19, “Report on the Propagation of the Shad (Alosa Sapidissima) and Its Introduction into New Waters by the U. S. Fish Commissioner in 1873,” in U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Report of the Commissioner for 1872 and 1873 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1874), http://penbay.org/cof/cof_1872–1873_xix.pdf (February 15, 2013); “Around Georgia,” Augusta Chronicle, August 25, 1889, 2; Charles Minor Blackford, “The Shad—A National Problem,” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 46, no. 1 (December 1, 1916): 5–14.
51. Muir, Thousand-Mile Walk, 60–63.
52. “Greeting Grady,” Atlanta Constitution, December 25, 1886, 1; Henry W. Grady, “Cotton and Its Kingdom” (1881), in Life of Henry W. Grady Including His Writings and Speeches, ed. Joel Chandler Harris (New York: Cassell Publishing Company, 1890), 262–307, esp. 273. See also Grady, “Before the Bay State Club” (1889), in Harris, Life of Henry W. Grady, 199–207.
53. Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), 2–15.
54. James C. Williams, Energy and the Making of Modern California (Akron: University of Akron Press, 1997), 174.
55. F. C. Finkle, “Electrical Development of Hydraulic Power,” Engineering Magazine 14, no. 6 (March 1898): 1011–26, esp. 1012. See also Williams, Energy and the Making of Modern California, 168–70.
56. Robert McF. Doble, “Hydro-Electric Power Development and Transmission in California,” Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies 34, no. 3 (March 1905): 75–98, esp. 82.
57. “Electric Railroad Development,” Engineering Record, Building Record, and Sanitary Engineer 23 (May 9, 1891): 383. See also Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Global History Network, “Milestones: Richmond Union Passenger Railway, 1888,” http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Richmond_Union_Passenger_Railway,_1888 (April 14, 2012), and David E. Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880–1940 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990), chap. 3.
58. Ginger Gail Strand, Inventing Niagara: Beauty, Power, and Lies (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008), 148–53.
59. George Fillmore Swain, J. A. Holmes, and E. W. Myers, Papers on the Waterpower in North Carolina: A Preliminary Report, North Carolina Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 8 (Raleigh: Guy V. Barnes, 1899), 341; Augustus Kohn, The Water Powers of South Carolina (Charleston, S.C.: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1911), 37; David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880–1920 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982), 46 n. 11.
60. Hughes, Networks of Power, 14–17.
61. George E. Ladshaw, The Economics of the Flow of Rivers and the Development of Hydraulic Power: Water Power vs. Steam Power (Spartanburg, S.C.: Jones and Company, 1889), 3 (“southern rivers”), 26 (“water power companies” and “labor”). Whitner’s activities have been reconstructed from many sources: Anderson Water, Light & Power Company, First Annual Report (n.p., n.d.), and Wm. C. Whitner & Co., Inc., Consulting and Construction Engineers (Richmond, n.d.), are located in William Church Whitner (1864–1940) Papers, R69 Mss(R), Manuscripts Division, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia. See also Kohn, Water Powers of South Carolina, 37–39; Robert F. Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas: The Duke Power Company, 1904–1997 (Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2001), 3–11; and “Generators at Portman to Be Silenced Forever,” Anderson (S.C.) Independent, December 9, 1960, clipping in folder 3, “Clark’s Hill News Clippings,” box 3, LMC, 2002.036.
62. At nearly the same moment, private investors developed similar systems in other southern states. In 1896 the Pelzer Manufacturing Company built a hydropower facility on the Saluda River in South Carolina to electrify a mill three miles away. And in April 1898 the Fries Manufacturing and Power Company installed the “first power-transmission plant in North Carolina” on the Yadkin River in Forsyth County. Electricity was transmitted about thirteen miles to five mills and factories and the railway company in Winston and Salem. See Swain, Holmes, and Myers, Papers on the Waterpower in North Carolina, 348–50, and Beth Ann Klosky, “Six Miles That Changed the Course of the South”: The Story of the Electric City, Anderson, South Carolina (Anderson, S.C.: The Electric City Centennial Committee, in cooperation with the City of Anderson and Anderson Heritage, Inc., 1995), 46–47, 55–56.
63. On Whitner’s life and work, see n. 61.
64. James C. Cobb, “Beyond Planters and Industrialists: A New Perspective on the New South,” Journal of Southern History 54, no. 1 (February 1988): 45–68.
65. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 8 (“town people”), 39 (“new world” and “embryonic”). The new industrial-social order is best described in Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands, 1910–1948 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
66. Descriptive Index of Current Engineering Literature, Vol. 1, 1884–1891 (Inclusive) (Chicago, 1892); The Engineering Index: Five Years—1896–1900 (New York, 1901); The Engineering Index Annual for 1906 (New York, 1907); The Engineering Index Annual for 1907 (New York, 1908).
67. Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas, 6.
68. James Mitchell’s biography has been reconstructed from many sources: “James Mitchell Dies of Paralysis at 54,” New York Times, July 24, 1920, 9, and Alabama Power Company, Alabama Power Company, Golden Anniversary, December 4, 1956 (n.p.: The Company, 1956), 3. For Alabama Power’s history, see Jackson, Rivers of History; Harvey H. Jackson III, Putting “Loafing Streams” to Work: The Building of Lay, Mitchell, Martin, and Jordan Dams, 1910–1929 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1997); Leah Rawls Atkins, ”Developed for the Service of Alabama”: The Centennial History of the Alabama Power Company, 1906–2006 (Birmingham: Alabama Power Co., 2006), 17–18; and Dub Taft and Sam Heys, Big Bets: Decisions and Leaders That Shaped Southern Company (Atlanta: Southern Company, 2011).
69. Duncan McDowall, The Light: Brazilian Traction, Light, and Power Company Limited, 1899–1945 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988), 34.
70. Ibid., 92; Atkins, “Developed for the Service of Alabama,” 18.
71. Atkins, “Developed for the Service of Alabama,” 18.
72. Two other prominent transnational engineers include Massachusetts-born William E. Mitchell (1882–1960) and German-born Richard Pfaehler (1882–[1976?]). See Harllee Branch Jr., Georgia and the Georgia Power Company: A Century of Free Enterprise! (New York: Newcomen Society in North America, 1957), 24; Wade H. Wright, History of the Georgia Power Company, 1855–1956 (Atlanta: Georgia Power Company, 1957), 235; Atkins, “Developed for the Service of Alabama,” 38; and “Biographical and Professional Record of Richard Pfaehler, N.C.,” scrapbook, box 54, General Subseries, Miscellaneous Series, James Buchanan Duke Papers, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Duke University, Durham, N.C.
73. See Electrical World 91, no. 21 (May 26, 1928), for reports on regional development around the United States. The Rhine River’s alpine headwaters were sites for hydroelectric development primarily after 1892. See Mark Cioc, The Rhine: An Eco-Biography, 1815–2000 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 62–64, 131–32, and David Blackbourn, “Dam-Building and Modern Times,” in Blackbourn, The Conquest of Nature: Water, Landscape, and the Making of Modern Germany (New York: Norton, 2006). In 1895, the Folsom project on California’s American River set new standards for generation and transmission; see Williams, Energy and the Making of Modern California, 176. British Columbia’s development began in 1903. See Matthew D. Evenden, Fish versus Power: An Environmental History of the Fraser River (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 56–69.
1. Rupert B. Vance, Human Geography of the South: A Study in Regional Resources and Human Adequacy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1932), 16–17 (“economic complexes”), 285 (“harnessed”), chap. 12 (“Piedmont Crescent of Industry”); William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: Norton, 1991); Edward Ayers, The Promise of the New South: Life after Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
2. Robert F. Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas: The Duke Power Company, 1904–1997 (Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2001), 64. The companies I will call Alabama Power, Duke Power, and Georgia Power throughout this chapter changed names though consolidation, new ownership, incorporation, or holding company transfers throughout the twentieth century. These names will be used for simplicity and to illustrate the current corporations’ histories. Today, Georgia Power is one of four companies—including Alabama Power, Gulf Power, and Mississippi Power—under the umbrella of the Southern Company (established in 1945). Duke Power was initially known as the Southern Power Company (established in 1904 and having no affiliation with the current Southern Company), became Duke Power in 1924, merged with Progress Energy in 2012, and is currently known as Duke Energy. For corporate histories, see Wade H. Wright, History of the Georgia Power Company, 1855–1956 (Atlanta: Georgia Power Company, 1957); Jack Riley, Carolina Power and Light Company, 1908–1958: A Corporate Biography, Tracing the Origin and Development of Electric Service in Much of the Carolinas (Raleigh, N.C.: Edwards and Broughton, 1958); Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas; Martha Elrod and Julie Groce, Energizing Georgia: The History of Georgia Power, 1883–2004 (Macon, Ga.: Indigo Custom Publishing, 2004); Leah Rawls Atkins, “Developed for the Service of Alabama”: The Centennial History of the Alabama Power Company, 1906–2006 (Birmingham: Alabama Power Co., 2006); and Dub Taft and Sam Heys, Big Bets: Decisions and Leaders That Shaped Southern Company (Atlanta: Southern Company, 2011). Duke did not invent the term “white coal,” which was already in global circulation. David Blackbourn charts a history of water, energy, and nationalism in Germany during the 1890s, where “‘white coal’ was cheap, clean, hygienic, and modern, not like smoky, sooty coal.” See chapter 4, “Dam-Building and Modern Times,” in Blackbourn, The Conquest of Nature: Water, Landscape, and the Making of Modern Germany (New York: Norton, 2006), esp. 201 and 219.
3. Vance, Human Geography, chap. 12, esp. 281.
4. Robert F. Durden, The Dukes of Durham, 1865–1929 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1975), 177–83.
5. “A Hydro-electric Power Development on the Catawba River, near Rock Hill, S.C.,” Electrical World and Engineer 44, no. 4 (July 23, 1904): 129–32; Augustus Kohn, The Water Powers of South Carolina (Charleston, S.C.: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1911), 82–83.
6. Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas, ix–x, chap. 1.
7. C. A. Mees, “Development of the Rocky Creek Station of the Southern Power Company,” Engineering Record, Building Record, and Sanitary Engineer 59, no. 14 (April 3, 1909): 462–69, esp. 462.
8. Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas, 20, 33; Harriet L. Herring, [J. Herman Johnson,] Rupert B. Vance, and T. J. Woofter Jr., A Survey of the Catawba Valley: A Study Made by the Institute for Research in Social Science for the Tennessee Valley Authority, 2 vols. (Chapel Hill: Institute for Research in Social Justice at the University of North Carolina, 1935), 1:1, in the North Carolina Collection, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. See also Thorndike Saville, “The Power Situation in the South Appalachian States: The Development of Power Systems of the Southern Province,” Manufacturers’ Record 91, no. 16 (April 21, 1927): 68–77, esp. 68. Alabama Power also “manufactured” the company’s initial industrial and commercial customer; see Taft and Heys, Big Bets, 20–22. Georgia Power also expressed little interest in rural lines because the investment could not be recouped from farmers; see Henry M. Atkinson, “The Relation of Electric Power to Farm Progress: Georgia’s Need—More Industries and Less Politics,” address before the Eighteenth Annual Farmers’ Week Conference, Athens, Ga., January 28, 1925, 19.
9. Recent energy histories focus on coal as a critical fuel in Colorado and the mid-Atlantic; see Thomas G. Andrews, Killing for Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008), and Christopher F. Jones, “A Landscape of Energy Abundance: Anthracite Coal Canals and the Roots of American Fossil Fuel Dependence, 1820–1860,” Environmental History 15, no. 3 (July 2010): 449–84. David Nye offers the best synthetic treatment of U.S. energy history: Consuming Power: A Social History of American Energies (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998).
10. James C. Williams, Energy and the Making of Modern California (Akron: University of Akron Press, 1997); Joseph A. Pratt, “The Ascent of Oil: The Transition from Coal to Oil in Early Twentieth-Century America,” in Energy Transitions: Long-Term Perspectives, ed. Lewis J. Perelman, August W. Giebelhaus, and Michael D. Yokell (Boulder, Colo.: American Association for the Advancement of Science and Westview Press, 1981), 9–34, esp. 21; Joseph A. Pratt, “A Mixed Blessing: Energy, Economic Growth, and Houston’s Environment,” in Energy Metropolis: An Environmental History of Houston and the Gulf Coast, ed. Martin V. Melosi and Joseph A. Pratt (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007), 21–51, esp. 26–33.
11. “What About ‘Old King Coal’? Is He ‘On the Way Out’?” Right Way Magazine, October 1936, 4–5.
12. Vance, Human Geography, 307.
13. Edward L. Doheny, a U.S. investor in the Mexican Central Railway, began exploring Mexican oil fields in 1900 looking for better fuel to replace poor quality Alabama coal; see Jonathan C. Brown, “Jersey Standard and the Politics of Latin American Oil Production, 1911–30,” in Latin American Oil Companies and the Politics of Energy, ed. John D. Wirth (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985), 8.
14. W. A. Kline, “Hooverize the Coal Pile,” Right Way Magazine, August 1920, 25, 29.
15. Wayne Flynt, Poor but Proud: Alabama’s Poor Whites (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1989); W. David Lewis, Sloss Furnaces and the Rise of the Birmingham District: An Industrial Epic (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1994); Andrews, Killing for Coal, 179.
16. J. A. Switzer, “Water-Power Development in the South,” pt. 2, Cassier’s Magazine: An Engineering Monthly [New York ed.] 42, no. 1 (July 1912): 90–96, esp. 96.
17. Thorndike Saville, “The Power Situation in North Carolina,” Manufacturers’ Record 86, no. 26 (December 25, 1924): 68–70, esp. 69.
18. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones, and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 197.
19. J. A. Switzer, “Water-Power Development in the South,” pt. 1, Cassier’s Magazine: An Engineering Monthly [New York ed.] 41, no. 6 (June 1912): 561–76, esp. 561.
20. Ralph G. Macy, “The Southward Trend of Manufacturing: The Piedmont Section of the Carolinas,” pt. 1, Management and Administration 7, no. 5 (May 1924): 517–22, esp. 520; Ralph G. Macy, “The Construction and Costs of Southern Cotton Mills and Equipment: The Piedmont Section of the Carolinas,” pt. 3, Management and Administration 8, no. 1 (July 1924): 47–52, esp. 51.
21. L. W. W. Morrow, “The Interconnected South,” Electrical World 91, no. 21 (May 26, 1928): 1077–84.
22. Vance, Human Geography, 284.
23. Switzer, “Water-Power Development in the South,” pt. 1, 564.
24. Hales Bar may have been the first southeastern multiple-purpose project of its kind, but other investors were working on similar projects in Alabama, Georgia, and Iowa. See “Hydroelectric Development on the Tennessee River,” Electrical Review and Western Electrician 63, no. 21 (November 22, 1913): 1005–9, esp. 1005. For reference, the Bureau of Reclamation completed the Salt River and Roosevelt Dam project in Arizona in 1911, which was the bureau’s first multiple-purpose reclamation (i.e., irrigation) and power project. See David P. Billington and Donald C. Jackson, Big Dams of the New Deal Era: A Confluence of Engineering and Politics (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006), 26–46. For more information regarding the Savannah River’s Stevens Creek hydroelectric and navigation project, see “Great Hydro-Electric Power Development at Stevens Creek Attracting Attention of Many,” Augusta Chronicle, November 17, 1912, 8; George G. Shedd, “Two Recent Southern Hydro-Electric Developments,” Power 39, no. 3 (January 20, 1914): 83–86; and South Carolina Electric and Gas, Stevens Creek Hydroelectric Project: Significant Historic and Archeological Resources (n.p., n.d. [1999?]), http://www.sceg.com/NR/rdonlyres/25DD5351–2826–478B-9691-BE26A3F1CEB3/0/StevensCreekReport.pdf (February 15, 2013).
25. Thomas E. Murray, “The Improvement of the Tennessee River and Power Installation of the Chattanooga and Tennessee River Power Company at Hale’s Bar, Tenn.,” Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers 27 (May 1906): 521–55, esp. 534, copy in the Hales Bar Dam Collection, 1905–1968, Archives Center, NMAH. On the responsibilities of the Corps of Engineers, see also John W. Frink, “The Foundation of Hales Bar Dam,” Economic Geology 41, no. 6 (1946): 576–97, esp. 579.
26. Jeffrey K. Stine, “United States Army Corps of Engineers,” in Government Agencies, ed. Donald R. Whitnah, Greenwood Encyclopedia of American Institutions (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983), 513–16; Martin Melosi, Precious Commodity: Providing Water for America’s Cities (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011), 12–20.
27. Leland R. Johnson, Engineers of the Twin Rivers: A History of the Nashville District Corps of Engineers, United States Army (Nashville, Tenn.: United States Army Engineer District, 1978), 166–68.
28. “Hydroelectric Development on the Tennessee River” (November 22, 1913), 1005–9, esp. 1006 (“soluble”) and 1007 (“solid rock”). See also Tennessee Valley Authority, “History of Leakage at the Hales Bar Dam,” in Proposed Improvements to the Hales Bar Project, TVA Report No. 11–100 (November 1941), 1–4 (for discussion of “boils”), copy in Hales Bar Dam Collection, Archives Center, NMAH. The TVA eventually abandoned the Hales Bar project and buried the dam under Nickajack Lake in 1967.
29. Frink, “Foundation of Hales Bar Dam,” 578; “Hydroelectric Development on the Tennessee River,” Electrical World 62, no. 20 (November 15, 1913): 997–1000, esp. 997.
30. J. A. Switzer, “The Power Development at Hale’s Bar,” Resources of Tennessee 2 (March 1912): 86–99, esp. 98, copy in the Hales Bar Dam Collection, Archives Center, NMAH.
31. Norman Wengert, “The Antecedents of TVA: The Legislative History of Muscle Shoals,” Agricultural History 26, no. 4 (October 1952): 141–47; Johnson, Engineers of the Twin Rivers, 169.
32. Preston J. Hubbard, Origins of the TVA: The Muscle Shoals Controversy, 1920–1932 (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1961), 145.
33. Thomas K. McCraw, TVA and the Power Fight, 1933–1939 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1971), chap. 1; Billington and Jackson, Big Dams of the New Deal Era, chap. 2 and esp. 72.
34. Robert Ernest McFarland Jr., “Of Time and the River: Economy, People, and the Environment in the Tennessee River Valley, 1500–1990” (Ph.D. diss., University of Alabama, 1997), 240; Switzer, “Water-Power Development in the South,” pt. 2, 93–94. Alcoa managed investments in at least two subsidiaries: Tallassee Power Company (Tapoco) and Nantahala Power and Light Company; see Charles C. Carr, ALCOA: An American Enterprise (New York: Rinehart, 1952), 94–95; Stephen Wallace Taylor, The New South’s New Frontier: A Social History of Economic Development in Southwestern North Carolina (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001), 30, 60–62; Mountain Heritage Center, Western Carolina University, “NP&L Company Timeline,” http://www.wcu.edu/mhc/exhibits/NPL/Index.htm (accessed February 15, 2013); and J. S. Barrett, “History of Tapoco, North Carolina,” in Graham County Centennial, 1872–1972 (Robbinsville, N.C.: Graham County Centennial 1972, Inc., 1972), http://www.grahamcounty.net/GCHistory/06-tapoco/tapoco.htm (accessed February 15, 2013). The Tallassee Power Company also invested in hydroelectric facilities (1918) on the Yadkin River in Badin, N.C., to supply energy to an aluminum smelter originally owned by the Southern Aluminum Company; see Saville, “Power Situation in the South Appalachian States,” 73–74, and Carr, ALCOA, 93.
35. Eric A. Lof, “The Hydro-electric Development of the Georgia Railway and Power Company at Tallulah Falls, Georgia,” pt. 1, General Electric Review 17, no. 6 (June 1914): 608–21, esp. 608.
36. John Birkinbine, “Hydroelectric Development on the Tallulah River, Georgia,” paper delivered to the Engineer’s Club of Philadelphia (1914), 27–28, folder “Power Dam at Gregg Shoals,” box 79, RG 77, NAS; Williams, Energy and the Making of Modern California, chap. 9.
37. Wright, History of the Georgia Power Company, 183.
38. H. M. Atkinson, “Georgia Railway and Power Company: Power Development on Tallulah and Chattooga Rivers,” Manufacturers’ Record 82 (November 2, 1922): 99–104, esp. 99.
39. “P. S. Arkwright, 75, Head of Utility,” New York Times, December 3, 1946, 31; Preston S. Arkwright Sr., “Some of the Marvels of Electricity,” Manufacturers’ Record 86, no. 23 (December 4, 1924): 88.
40. J. A. Morris, “Scientific and Industrial,” Atlanta Constitution, April 26, 1896, 5; “Elevators in Skyscraper Stop for Thirty Minutes,” Atlanta Constitution, February 4, 1910, 6; Campbell Gibson, Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 To 1990, Population Division Working Paper No. 27 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of the Census, June 1998), table 12, http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027/twps0027.html.
41. “Thomson-Houston,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, February 10, 1889, 19.
42. Kohn, Water Powers of South Carolina, 45, 53. On manufacture and natural gas lighting, see Nye, Consuming Power, 83–84, 95, 121. See also “Atlanta Gas Part of Rome History,” Rome News-Tribune, March 2, 1982.
43. J. H. Reed, “Atlanta: An Inspiring Story of Growth in Trade, Industry, Finance, Education, and Music,” Manufacturers’ Record 85, no. 9 (February 28, 1924): 76–84, esp. 79. For population estimation, see Gibson, Population of the 100 Largest Cities, tables 15 and 16.
44. W. S. Murray et al., A Superpower System for the Region between Boston and Washington, Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 123 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1921), 13. For a primer on Giant Power and Super Power, see Sarah T. Phillips, This Land, This Nation: Conservation, Rural America, and the New Deal (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 25–36.
45. “Hydro-Electric Developments ‘Unparalleled in the World,’” Manufacturers’ Record 65, no. 21 (May 28, 1914): 41–42; Thorndike Saville, “The Power Situation in the Southern Power Province,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 153, Coming of Industry to the South edition (January 1931): 94–123, esp. 116. See also the articles on regional electric generation, distribution, and service in Electrical World 91, no. 21 (May 26, 1928), esp. Morrow, “Interconnected South.”
46. Wright, History of the Georgia Power Company, 213–16; Atkins, “Developed for the Service of Alabama,” 141–48, 162; Taft and Heys, Big Bets, esp. 39–55, 75–92.
47. Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas, 4.
48. Thomas W. Martin, “Hydroelectric Development in the South,” in The South’s Development: Fifty Years of Southern Progress, a Glimpse of the Past, the Facts of the Present, a Forecast of the Future, special issue of the Manufacturers’ Record 86, no. 24, pt. 2 (December 11, 1924), 242–62, esp. 257.
49. Joseph Hyde Pratt, “The Southeastern Power System and Its Tremendous Industrial Value to the States It Serves,” Manufacturers’ Record 86 (July 24, 1924): 83–84.
50. Phillips, This Land, This Nation, 30.
51. Philip J. Funigiello, Toward a National Power Policy: The New Deal and the Electric Utility Industry, 1933–1941 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973), 6–29.
52. U.S. Congress, Senate, Electric Power Development in the United States: Letter from the Secretary of Agriculture Transmitting a Report, in Response to a Senate Resolution of February 13, 1915, as to the Ownership and Control of the Water-Power Sites in the United States (3 vols.), 64th Cong., 1st sess. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1916), 1:53, 2:74.
53. Image from Southern Farming (January 4, 1913) found in Atkins, “Developed for the Service of Alabama,” 54.
54. W. S. Murray, “The Superpower System as an Answer to a National Power Policy,” General Electric Review 25, no. 2 (February 1922): 72–76, esp. 72.
55. Jean Christie, Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Progressive Engineer (New York: Garland, 1983), 79; Phillips, This Land, This Nation, 25.
56. Morrow, “Interconnected South,” 1079–81, esp. 1081.
57. The interconnected companies included Southeastern Power and Light Co. (Alabama Power, Georgia Power, and Mississippi Power Companies); Carolina Power and Light Company; Duke Power Company; Florida Power and Light Company; Tennessee Electric Power Company; Appalachian Power Company; and Virginia Public Service Company. See ibid., 1079–81.
58. On interconnection and droughts, see Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas, 62–63, and Saville, “Power Situation in North Carolina,” 70. On interconnection, see Martin, “Hydroelectric Development in the South,” 255–57.
59. Atkinson, “Georgia Railway and Power Company,” 99.
60. “Alabama Sending Power to Georgia Because of Drouht [sic],” Atlanta Constitution, August 23, 1925, 9, 13.
61. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, Robert Korstad, and James Leloudis, “Cotton Mill People: Work, Community, and Protest in the Textile South, 1880–1940,” American Historical Review 91, no. 2 (April 1986): 245–86, esp. 258; Hall et al., Like a Family, 47–48; Allen Tullos, Habits of Industry: White Culture and the Transformation of the Carolina Piedmont (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 16–17.
62. “Mills Close Down Today Due to Low Water in the Canal,” Augusta Chronicle, September 19, 1918, 3.
63. David E. Ney brilliantly demonstrates how the “blackout” evolved as a cultural construction during the twentieth century. However, Nye’s broad synthesis missed the complex relationship of droughts and electrical supply in the Southeast; see When the Lights Went Out: A History of Blackouts in America (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2010), esp. 39–40.
64. “New Dam to Protect Industries against Drought,” Atlanta Constitution, May 23, 1920, K17.
65. “Alabama Sending Power to Georgia Because of Drouht,” 9.
66. Wright, History of the Georgia Power Company, 212.
67. “Alabama Sending Power to Georgia Because of Drouht,” 9, 13.
68. Atkinson, “Georgia Railway and Power Company,” 99; Pratt, “Southeastern Power System,” 84; Saville, “Power Situation in North Carolina,” 70; “Alabama Sending Power to Georgia Because of Drouht,” 9, 13; “Atlanta Gets Power as First Water Pours into Shoals Turbine,” Atlanta (Ga.) Constitution, August 30, 1925, 1, 3; Taft and Heys, Big Bets, esp. 21 (“coal by wire”).
69. Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas, 64.
70. Ibid., 96–99.
71. Wright, History of the Georgia Power Company, 212, 247, 324–25. Georgia Power began operating Plant Atkinson upstream of Atlanta on the Chattahoochee River in 1930, and in 1941 the company began operating Plant Arkwright near Macon on the Ocmulgee River. The company retired and began dismantling both plants in 2003 to save money and reduce sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen oxide emissions; see “Ga. Power Retiring Old Plants,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, May 16, 2002, A1. Congress designated the Wild and Scenic Chattooga River in 1974.
72. C. B. Hawkins and W. W. Eberhardt, “Method of Handling Interconnected Operation,” Electrical World 92, no. 15 (October 13, 1928): 725–31, esp. 727.
73. “Power Possibilities of Catawba River Highly Developed through Stream Control,” Engineering News-Record 104, no. 25 (June 19, 1930): 1007–12, esp. 1008.
74. It is worth noting that droughts in 1918–19 and 1920–21 in California reduced hydroelectric generation capacity, and utilities responded by investing heavily in natural gas and steam to generate electricity; see Williams, Energy and the Making of Modern California, 277–79.
75. The TVA also acquired private electric companies and their management staff outright, according to Lynn Nelson, “‘Harassed by the Floods and Storms of Nature’: Remembering Private Hydro-Power and Rural Communities in Tennessee,” paper read at the American Society for Environmental History Conference, Tallahassee, Florida, February 2009.
76. Rupert Vance, “The Consumption of Coal in Relation to the Development of Hydroelectric Power in the Carolinas,” in Herring et al., Survey of the Catawba Valley, vol. 2, Appendix D, 399 (“tremendous”), 408 (“hydro power or nothing”); Herring et al., Survey of the Catawba Valley, 1:3 (“hydro-industrial empire”).
77. Murray, “Superpower System as an Answer to a National Power Policy,” 72. Murray circulated within the transnational community of engineers, and in South Carolina in 1927 one of his companies eventually completed the massive Saluda River Hydroelectric Project dam and lake named in his honor: Lake Murray. Murray’s project produced wholesale electricity that was transmitted directly into the southern Super Power system and distributed to Duke Power, Carolina Power and Light Company, and Broad River Power Company customers. Lake Murray is currently owned and operated by the South Carolina Electric and Gas Company. See Saluda Hydroelectric Project, FERC Project No. 516: Construction History, Exhibit C, prepared by Kleinschmidt Energy and Water Resources Consultants, December 2007, http://www.saludahydrorelicense.com/documents/EXHIBITC.pdf (February 15, 2013).
78. On one important technology, see Raymond Arsenault, “The End of the Long Hot Summer: The Air Conditioner and Southern Culture,” Journal of Southern History 50, no. 4 (November 1984): 597–628.
79. Murray, “Improvement of the Tennessee,” 531.
1. On Augusta’s drought, see Mayors Message and Official Reports of the Department of the City of Augusta, for the Year 1907 (Augusta, Ga.: Phoenix Printing Co., 1908), 62–63. On valley flooding, see A. L. Dabney, “Report on Flood Protection for the City of Augusta, GA” (April 30, 1912), and H. T. Cory, “Report on Flood Protection at Augusta, Georgia” (May 20, 1912), folder SR 824.02, box 80, accession 76E342, RG 77, NAS.
2. The storm and flooding events have been reconstructed from multiple sources, including telephone conversation notes, October 2, 1929, folder DR 362.08, Georgia–South Carolina Flood, 9 & 10/29, box 760, Records of the American National Red Cross, 1917–1934, RG 200, NAII; “Two Georgia Towns Imperiled as Dams Loose Torrents into Valley; Battle of Workers to Save Augusta Levee Is Believed Successful,” Atlanta Constitution, October 3, 1929, 1; E. D. Emigh, USDA Weather Bureau, Report of the Floods in the Savannah River, September and October, 1929 (October 18, 1929), Mis. 10059/43.30, box 75, accession 76E342, RG 77, NAS; Ralph Howard, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Augusta Flood 1929, Report of Emergency Work, n.d. [possibly December 12, 1929], 5–6, Mis. 10059/43–62, box 75, accession 76E342, RG 77, NAS; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Secretary of War, Savannah River Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1935), 36–47.
3. Edward J. Cashin, The Story of Augusta (Augusta, Ga.: Richmond County Board of Education, 1980), 72.
4. Kathleen Ann Clark, Defining Moments: African American Commemoration and Political Culture in the South, 1863–1913 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 126–30.
5. Emigh, Report of the Floods in the Savannah River, 8 (“many of the houses”); “Augusta Levee Breaks; Six Cities Isolated,” Atlanta Constitution, September 28, 1929, 1 (“negro settlement”); Charles W. Carr, Proposed Plans for Rehabilitation in Hamburg, S.C. (November 18, 1929), folder DR 326, Georgia–South Carolina Flood, 9 & 10/29, box 760, RG 200, NAII. See also Timothy Cox, “Residents Recall Life in Black Community,” Augusta Chronicle, November 10, 2002. For hurricane and tropical storm histories, see National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Historical Hurricane Tracking, http://maps.csc.noaa.gov/hurricanes/index.html#.
6. Philip J. Funigiello, Toward a National Power Policy: The New Deal and the Electric Utility Industry, 1933–1941 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973). Karl B. Brooks argues that private energy companies “un-plugged” the New Deal’s (and the Corps’) water and energy program in the 1950s in the American West; see Public Power, Private Dams: The Hells Canyon High Dam Controversy (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006).
7. Bruce J. Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt: Federal Policy, Economic Development, and the Transformation of the South, 1938–1980 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1994); Alan Brinkley, End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Knopf, 1995); Jason Scott Smith, Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Sarah T. Phillips, This Land, This Nation: Conservation, Rural America, and the New Deal (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
8. Ted Steinberg, Acts of God: The Unnatural History of Natural Disaster in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), xxii.
9. Jeffrey K. Stine, “United States Army Corps of Engineers,” in Government Agencies, ed. Donald R. Whitnah, Greenwood Encyclopedia of American Institutions (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983), 513–16.
10. U.S. Congress, House, Survey of the Savannah River above Augusta, 51st Cong., 1st sess., February 18, 1890, House Executive Document 213, pp. 5, 11.
11. Col. Dan Kingman, Savannah, Ga., to Chief of Engineers, Washington, D.C., September 9, 1908, 5, folder Mis. 10059/1 to 10059/42, box 75, accession 76E342, RG 77, NAS.
12. The 1908 flood claimed sixteen lives; see Mayors Message and Official Reports of the Department of the City of Augusta, for 1908 (Augusta, Ga.: Phoenix Printing Co., 1909), 16, 42.
13. The City Council of Augusta, Ga., Yearbook 1910 (Augusta, Ga.: Williams Printing Co., 1911), 25, 41; Nineteen Eleven Year Book of the City Council of Augusta, Ga. (Augusta, Ga.: Phoenix Printing Co., 1912), 97–99.
14. John M. Barry, Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997); Karen M. O’Neill, Rivers by Design: State Power and the Origins of U.S. Flood Control (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2006); David P. Billington and Donald C. Jackson, Big Dams of the New Deal Era: A Confluence of Engineering and Politics (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006).
15. Col. W. M. Black, Board of Engineers for Rivers and Harbors, Savannah River at Augusta, Ga., December 7, 1915, 1–4, box 76, project 803025, RG 77, NAII; Major D. Weart, “Report of Flood Study on Savannah River at Augusta, Georgia, Savannah, Georgia, District,” December 18, 1929, p. 37, box 1111, project 803017, RG 77, NAII.
16. Martin Melosi, Precious Commodity: Providing Water for America’s Cities (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011), 16–20. See Electrical World 91, no. 21 (May 26, 1928), for reports on regional development around the United States.
17. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Headwaters Reservoir Operating Plan Evaluation (ROPE): Upper Mississippi River Headwaters Bemidji to St. Paul, Minnesota, DRAFT Integrated Reservoir Operating Plan Evaluation and Environmental Impact Statement (St. Paul, Minn.: United States Army Corps of Engineers, St. Paul District, August 2008), chap. 4, 20–32, http://www.co.aitkin.mn.us/ROPE/CHAPTER%204.%20AFFECTED%20ENVIRONMENT.pdf (February 16, 2013).
18. “Dayton Flood-Protection Ready for Adoption,” Engineering News 75, no. 10 (March 9, 1916): 485–86; “Final Flood-Protection Plan for Miami Valley,” Engineering News 75, no. 14 (April 6, 1916): 674–75; Arthur Ernest Morgan, The Miami Conservancy District (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1951).
19. For more on Georgia Power’s and Duke Power’s projects, see chap. 2.
20. Billington and Jackson, Big Dams of the New Deal Era, 28–46.
21. For more on Hales Bar, see chap. 2. The Mississippi River Power Company completed the Keokuk (Iowa) dam, hydroelectric facilities, and navigation lock in 1913 soon after Hales Bar and delivered power to St. Louis 144 miles away; see Eric A. Lof, “The Mississippi River Hydro-electric Development at Keokuk, Iowa,” pt. 1, General Electric Review 17, no. 2 (February 1914): 85–98. The Stevens Creek dam, hydroelectric facility, and navigation lock (completed in 1914) is located thirteen miles upstream from Augusta; see “Georgia-Carolina Power Company: Its Birth and Development,” Augusta Chronicle, February 15, 1914, 4, and South Carolina Electric and Gas, Stevens Creek Hydroelectric Project: Significant Historic and Archeological Resources (n.p., n.d. [possibly 1999]), http://www.sceg.com/NR/rdonlyres/25DD5351-2826-478B-9691-BE26A3F1CEB3/0/StevensCreekReport.pdf (February 15, 2013).
22. Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890–1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959); James Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998). For example, see Benjamin Mortimer Hall and Max R. Hall, Third Report on the Water-Powers of Georgia, Geological Survey of Georgia, Bulletin No. 38 (Atlanta: Byrd Printing Company, 1921).
23. Funigiello, Toward a National Power Policy, 6–29.
24. U.S. Congress, House, Estimate of Cost of Examinations, Etc., of Streams Where Power Development Appears Feasible, 69th Cong., 1st sess., April 13, 1926, House Document 308.
25. Correspondence between Major D. L. Weart and William States Lee, July 29 and 31, 1930, folder Copy of Savannah River 308 Report, Mis. 500/31–82–250, box 53, accession 76E342, RG 77, NAS.
26. For data sharing, see boxes 53 and 57, accession 76E342, RG 77, NAS, for correspondence between C. James (Allied Engineers) and Ralph Rhodes (Senior Engineer, Savannah District), July 23, 1930; Ralph S. Howard (Associate Engineer) and Major D. L. Weart (Savannah District), March 31, 1930; J. E. Parker (Allied Engineers, Inc.) and Major D. L. Weart, August 18, September 5, and October 7, 1931; Ralph Rhodes, W. E. Sanford, and C. James, July 18 and 23, 1930; Elroy G. Smith and Major D. L. Weart, August 1, 1930.
27. Savannah River Electric Company Application for License, Federal Power Commission, November 5, 1926, and Savannah District, “Report on application for license by Savannah River Electric Co. of Edgefield, S.C., Project No. 798” (July 27, 1927), box 78, accession 76E342, RG 77, NAS.
28. Correspondence between J. E. Parker, Assistant Engineer, Commonwealth & Southern Corporation of New York, and Major C. Garlington, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Savannah District, March 18 and 27, 1933, box 53, accession 76E342, RG 77, NAS.
29. The TVA scholarship is extensive and the recommended sources include Preston J. Hubbard, Origins of the TVA: The Muscle Shoals Controversy, 1920–1932 (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1961); Thomas K. McCraw, Morgan vs. Lilienthal: The Feud within the TVA (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1970); Thomas K. McCraw, TVA and the Power Fight, 1933–1939 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1971); Philip Selznick, TVA and the Grass Roots: A Study of Politics and Organization (New York: Harper and Row, 1980); Michael J. McDonald and John Muldowny, TVA and the Dispossessed: The Resettlement of Population in the Norris Dam Area (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1982); and Erwin C. Hargrove and Paul K. Conkin, eds., TVA: Fifty Years of Grass-Roots Bureaucracy (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983).
30. T. Robert Hart has compiled the best interpretation of Santee-Cooper; see “The Lowcountry Landscape: Politics, Preservation, and the Santee-Cooper Project,” Environmental History 18, no. 1 (January 2013): 127–56.
31. The Wheeler, Norris, Pickiwick, and Guntersville multiple-purpose projects were either completed or under construction in 1935.
32. Major D. L. Weart, Savannah District, “Report of Flood Study on Savannah River at Augusta, Georgia, Savannah, Georgia, District,” December 18, 1929, box 1111, project #803017, RG 77, NAII.
33. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Secretary of War, Savannah River Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina, 2, 19–40, 50–51, 71–72, 103, 132–34.
34. Kay Dockins, “River Basin Development Team Is Set,” Augusta Chronicle, January 19, 1966, 1; Paul Garber, “City Booster’s Influence Felt in Many Areas,” Augusta Chronicle, June 21, 1996; Mary Beth Reed, Barbara Smith Strack, and U.S. Department of Energy, Savannah River Site at Fifty (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy and Government Printing Office, 2002), 101; Cashin, Story of Augusta, 236.
35. Copy of letter, Lester Moody, Augusta Chamber of Commerce, to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, August 8, 1935, folder 1, box 3, LMC, 2002.036.
36. For a parallel case study in the American West, see Brooks, Public Power, Private Dams, 34.
37. “Vast Plant Atkinson, Peerless in U.S., Shown as Place of Engineering Marvels,” Snap Shots 3, no. 8 (August 1929): 1. On natural gas, see Wade H. Wright, History of the Georgia Power Company, 1855–1956 (Atlanta: Georgia Power Company, 1957), 248.
38. Dub Taft and Sam Heys, Big Bets: Decisions and Leaders That Shaped Southern Company (Atlanta: Southern Company, 2011), 95–97; Robert F. Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas: The Duke Power Company, 1904–1997 (Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2001), 110–12.
39. Georgia Power Company to United States, Warranty Deed, Deed Record E-4, 109–20, Rabun County Courthouse, Clayton, Ga.
40. “Huge Hydro Plant Planned,” Snap Shots 3, no. 9 (September 1929): 3.
41. “Harnessing Oconee for Georgia’s Progress,” Snap Shots 3, no. 11 (November 1929): 1; “550 Dixie Men Will Begin Dam in Icy Oconee,” Snap Shots 3, no. 12 (December 1929): 3.
42. “Power Company Plans $16,000,000 Building Program,” Atlanta Constitution, December 8, 1929, 11; “$16,000,000 Program Sets State Record,” Snap Shots 3, no. 12 (December 1929): 1.
43. “Concrete Is Placed at Furman Shoals; Begin Vast Wall,” Snap Shots 4, no. 4 (April 1930): 5; “Georgia Power Will Complete Oconee Plant,” Atlanta (Ga.) Constitution, July 20, 1942, 3; Wright, History of the Georgia Power Company, 250, 332. The company eventually restarted construction in 1949 and began dam operations in 1952.
44. Savannah River Special Board, Clark Hill Navigation–Flood Control–Power Project, Savannah River, Georgia–South Carolina, Report to the President (Washington, D.C.: n.p, February 29, 1936), 6, project 803017, box 1109, RG77, NAII.
45. Ibid., 44–48. Construction on a similar southern energy and water scheme—the Santee Cooper Hydroelectric and Navigation Project—began in 1934 during the New Deal (funded by the PWA) and was operational by 1942. The South Carolina Public Service Authority oversees the state-owned water and electrical utility’s operations today.
46. Preston S. Arkwright Sr.’s statement was provided via correspondence from Lester S. Moody, Chamber of Commerce Secretary, Augusta, Georgia, to Senator Richard B. Russell, November 25, 1936, Series XI, Rivers and Harbors, box 13, folder 6, RRC.
47. Henry M. Atkinson, “The Relation of Electric Power to Farm Progress: Georgia’s Need—More Industries and Less Politics,” address before the Eighteenth Annual Farmers’ Week Conference, Athens, Ga., January 28, 1925, 19. See also D. Clayton Brown, Electricity for Rural America: The Fight for the REA (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 73.
48. “G.P.C. Makes Bid for Clarks Hill,” Augusta Chronicle, October 9, 1939, 1.
49. The question was explicitly raised a few years later: John E. Stoddard, “Who Should Build the Clark Hill Dam?” News-Reporter, April 24, 1947.
50. Phillips, This Land, This Nation, chaps. 1 and 2.
51. McCraw, TVA and the Power Fight, chaps. 6 and 7.
52. Ibid., 63–65; Leah Rawls Atkins, “Developed for the Service of Alabama”: The Centennial History of the Alabama Power Company, 1906–2006 (Birmingham: Alabama Power Co., 2006), 80–84, 93–103, 175–89, 193–95.
53. Karen M. O’Neill, “Why the TVA Remains Unique: Interest Groups and the Defeat of New Deal River Planning,” Rural Sociology 67, no. 2 (2002): 163–82; O’Neill, Rivers by Design.
54. O’Neill, Rivers By Design, 146–47, 164–65.
55. For a recent interpretation of the TVA and the global modernization projects New Deal regional planning inspired, see David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010).
56. Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt, 15–31.
57. David L. Carlton and Peter A. Coclanis, eds., Confronting Poverty in the Great De pression: The Report on the Economic Conditions of the South with Related Documents (Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 47, 50–52.
58. Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt, 52.
59. Kari Frederickson, The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932–1968 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 13–27.
60. “An Inspiring Project,” Atlanta Journal, March 15, 1945; “Fortson Lauds Benefits of Savannah River Project,” Atlanta Constitution, March 15, 1945; U.S. Congress, Senate, Savannah Valley Authority, 79th Cong., 1st sess., S. 737, Congressional Record, March 14, 1945, 2168; “Bill Is Offered for Huge SRA,” Augusta Chronicle, March 15, 1945, 1; U.S. Congress, Senate, Savannah Valley Authority, 80th Cong., 1st sess., S. 1534, Congressional Record, June 30, 1947, 7876.
61. John T. McMullen, Liaison Representative, American Red Cross, Atlanta (Ga.) Regional Office, to Colin Herrle, Assistant Director, Disaster Relief, American Red Cross, March 12, 1929, folder DR 305, South Carolina, Hamburg Flood, 2/28/29, box 756, RG 200, NAII.
62. Howard, Augusta Flood 1929, 10.
63. Charles W. Carr, Disaster Relief Representative, American National Red Cross, Washington, D.C., to Colin Herrle, Assistant Director, Disaster Relief, American Red Cross, November 12, 1929, folder DR 305, South Carolina, Hamburg Flood, 2/28/29, box 757, RG 200, NAII.
64. $350 per acre would have been an exorbitant price, and it is possible this proposal contained computational or other errors; see Carr, Proposed Plans for Rehabilitation in Hamburg.
65. Charles W. Carr, The Georgia–South Carolina Flood of 1929: Narrative Report, February 11, 1930, folder DR 362, Georgia–South Carolina Flood, 9 & 10/29, box 760, RG 200, NAII.
66. John F. Battle, “New Hamburg, Now on a Hill, Rises From Ruins of the Old,” Augusta Chronicle, January 20, 1930, 3; “Hamburg ‘On Heights,’” Augusta Chronicle, January 27, 1930, newspaper clipping, folder DR 362, Georgia–South Carolina Flood, 9 & 10/29, box 760, RG 200, NAII.
67. Carr, Georgia–South Carolina Flood of 1929; “Insurance Firm Pays Tribute to Dr. Stoney,” Augusta Chronicle, October 13, 1926, 8; editorial, “A Negro Bank For Augusta,” Augusta Chronicle, February 23, 1928, 4. A likely picture of Carpenter’s insurance staff and grocery storefront can be found in Walter B. Ware, Black Business in the New South: A Social History of the North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973).
68. Charles W. Carr, Disaster Relief Representative, American National Red Cross, Augusta, Ga., to J. C. Whatley, Purchasing Officer, Aiken County Chapter Flood Relief, North Augusta, S.C., December 17, 1929, folder DR 362, Georgia–South Carolina Flood, 9 & 10/29, box 760, RG 200, NAII.
69. “Southern Realty Company” source: advertisement, Augusta Chronicle, June 2, 1929, D-5. Carpenter’s land ownership: Charles W. Carr, Disaster Relief Representative, American National Red Cross, Washington, D.C., to Colin Herrle, Assistant Director, Disaster Relief, American Red Cross, November 12, 1929, folder DR-305, South Carolina, Hamburg Flood, 2/28/29, box 757, RG 200, NAII, and “Plat Showing Property Located in Schultz’s (66) Township, Aiken County, South Carolina, Surveyed for O. M. Blount,” December 1929, folder DR 362, Georgia–South Carolina Flood, 9 & 10/29, box 760, RG 200, NAII.
70. Robert D. Bullard, Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990); Andrew Hurley, Environmental Inequalities: Class, Race, and Industrial Pollution in Gary, Indiana, 1945–1980 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Eileen Maura McGurty, “From NIMBY to Civil Rights: The Origins of the Environmental Justice Movement,” Environmental History 2, no. 3 (July 1997): 301–23; Ellen Stroud, “Troubled Waters in Ecotopia: Environmental Racism in Portland, Oregon,” Radical History Review 74 (Spring 1999): 65–95; Robert Bullard and Beverly Wright, The Wrong Complexion for Protection: How the Government Response to Disasters Endangers African American Communities (New York: New York University Press, 2012), chap. 3.
71. Smith, Building New Deal Liberalism, 195–97.
1. “Sacrifices Being Made by Augustans to Avert Threatened Power Shortage,” Augusta Chronicle, May 30, 1941, 3.
2. Weather Bureau statement: “U.S. Forester Warns of Fires,” Atlanta Constitution, May 18, 1941, 2D; advertisement, “An Appeal to All Users of Electric Light, Heat and Power,” Atlanta Constitution, May 25, 1941, 10C.
3. Display ad, “Public Welfare Demands GREATER Power Savings,” Atlanta Constitution, June 13, 1941, 8.
4. “Sacrifices Being Made by Augustans,” emphasis in original.
5. Augusta Chronicle, June 26, 1941, 2.
6. Display ad, “Monday’s the Deadline,” Augusta Chronicle, June 15, 1941, 10.
7. “The Artistry in the Waterworks Lawn,” Atlanta Constitution, May 11, 1941, 5; U.S. Congress, House, Apalachicola, Chattahoochee, and Flint Rivers, Ga. and Fla., 80th Cong., 1st sess., House Document no. 300, June 6, 1947, 34.
8. Campbell Gibson, Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 To 1990, Population Division Working Paper No. 27 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of the Census, June 1998), table 17, http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027/twps0027.html.
9. Display ad, “How Power Pooling Helps Relieve Shortage,” Atlanta Constitution, November 16, 1941, 10A; “Trout Streams Likely to Reopen This Week,” Atlanta Constitution, May 6, 1942, 15. Annual average precipitation data from the Southeast Regional Climate Center, http://www.sercc.com/climateinfo/monthly_seasonal.html. See also Nancy L. Barber and Timothy C. Stamey, Droughts in Georgia, U.S. Geological Survey Report 00-380, October 2000, 1.
10. For detailed treatments of two major Sun Belt navigation projects, see Jeffrey K. Stine, Mixing the Waters: Environment, Politics, and the Building of the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway (Akron: University of Akron Press, 1993), and Steven Noll and David Tegeder, Ditch of Dreams: The Cross Florida Barge Canal and the Struggle for Florida’s Future (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2009).
11. The dam and lake project that I will refer to as Clarks Hill throughout this book has a storied “name” history. The waterpower site was known as Clarks Hill throughout the nineteenth century as a reference to an adjacent South Carolina rural community. Due to a stenographer’s mistake in the initial congressional authorization legislation, the Corps’ project became Clark Hill Dam and Lake. Between the 1950s and 1980s, the project was referred to as Clark Hill and Clarks Hill. In 1988, Congress changed the name to J. Strom Thurmond Dam and Lake at Clarks Hill.
12. Kari Frederickson provides one of the best interpretations of disintegration of “the Solid South” in her book The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932–1968 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001).
13. U.S. Congress, Senate, Savannah River and Clark Hill Reservoir, 76th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Document 66 [1939], 1, 33.
14. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Secretary of War, Savannah River Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1935).
15. U.S. Congress, House, Savannah River, GA, 78th Cong., 2nd sess., June 9, 1944, House Document 657.
16. John M. Clark Jr., “John Mulford Clark, October 8, 1813–January 8, 1880,” March 25, 1952, 1–5, folder Legislation, 1952, Clarks Hill Project, box 29, OJP.
17. U.S. Congress, House, Savannah River, GA, 47–50. See also Edward B. Burwell Jr., Report on Geology of Dam and Reservoir Sites in the Savannah River Basin, Georgia and South Carolina (Cincinnati: War Department, Office of the Division Engineer, Ohio River Division, October 1, 1942), box 66, accession 76E342, RG 77, NAS.
18. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Rivers and Harbors, Hearings before the Committee on Rivers and Harbors, House of Representatives: On the Subject of the Improvement of the Savannah River, GA & Savannah River and Clarks Hill Reservoir, 78th Cong., October 27, 1943, 2–3.
19. Frederickson, Dixiecrat Revolt, 2.
20. Josephine Mellinchamp, Senators from Georgia (Huntsville, Ala.: Strode Publishers, 1976); “Walter Franklin George,” The Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress, http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=g000131.
21. “George Is Asked by Camp to Show ‘Letter’ To FDR,” Atlanta Constitution, September 2, 1938, 1; “Arkwright Denies Company Participated in George Campaign,” Atlanta Constitution, April 17, 1940, 1.
22. “Senator George Discusses Clark Hill,” Augusta Herald, October 24, 1944, 1, RRC clipping.
23. Alan Brinkley, End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Knopf, 1995); Jason Scott Smith, Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 263 for terminology citations.
24. Flood Control Act of 1944, Public Law 534, 78th Cong., 2nd Sess., Chapter 665, HR 4485 (December 22, 1944), 8. Of the eleven dams recommend by Savannah River, GA, House Document 657, 78th Cong., 2nd sess., and approved by the Flood Control Act (1944), the federal government (Corps) built three between 1954 and 1985. Among the four dams Duke Power Company constructed in the upper Savannah River valley after 1970, the company built two dams at sites originally recommended in these documents, using the two adjacent Newry–Old Pickens sites to create the giant Lake Keowee.
25. Flood Control Act 1944.
26. “Clarks Hill Project Would Mean Enormous Benefits for This Section of Two States,” Augusta Herald, January 21, 1944, RRC.
27. U.S. Congress, House, Savannah River, GA, 3.
28. For “keystone” quote, see Hillary H. Mangum, “Interstate Cooperation Shown in Clark’s Hill Development,” South Carolina Magazine 10, no. 1 (January 1947): 28.
29. Savannah River Special Board, Clark Hill Navigation–Flood Control–Power Project, Savannah River, Georgia–South Carolina, Report to the President (Washington, D.C.: n.p:, February 29, 1936), 6, box 1109, project 803017, RG 77, NAII.
30. “G.P.C. Makes Bid for Clarks Hill,” Augusta Chronicle, October 9, 1939, RRC clipping.
31. In Idaho, for example, see Karl Boyd Brooks, Public Power, Private Dams: The Hells Canyon High Dam Controversy (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006).
32. “All Citizens Are Concerned with Clark Hill Project,” Claxton Enterprise, September 5, 1946, sent to Russell from Georgia Power Company, Clark Hill Correspondence Materials, Rivers and Harbors Series, RRC.
33. “The Clark Hill Power Development,” Milledgeville Union-Recorder, September 5, 1946, 2, RRC clipping; “Georgia Power Will Complete Oconee Plan,” Atlanta Constitution, July 20, 1942, 3, RRC clipping; Wade H. Wright, History of the Georgia Power Company, 1855–1956 (Atlanta: Georgia Power Company, 1957), 250, 332. See also Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Georgia Power Company Project No. 1951–037 License (issued March 19, 1996), http://www.hydroreform.org/.
34. “Trade Groups Decline to Back Power Firm’s Plan for Clarks Hill,” Augusta Herald, September 14, 1946, RRC clipping.
35. “L. S. Moody Traces History of Clarks Hill Development,” Augusta Herald, September 15, 1946, 12, folder 3, “Clark’s Hill News Clippings,” box 3, LMC.
36. “Let the Government Build Clark Hill,” Augusta Chronicle, September 14, 1946, 4.
37. “Will Our Hopes and Aspirations for Clark Hill Be Met?” Edgefield Advertiser, May 3, 1950, folder 3, “Clark’s Hill News Clippings,” box 3, LMC.
38. Paul S. Sutter, Driven Wild: How the Fight against Automobiles Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 41–48 and chap. 2.
39. “State Parks in Georgia,” in Department of Natural Resources and State Department of Education, Natural Resources of Georgia: Georgia Program for the Improvement of Instruction in the Public Schools (Atlanta: State Department of Education, 1938), 11, 13–16.
40. Natural Resources: Georgia’s Vast Undeveloped Wealth (n.d. [likely 1941 or 1942]), Publications, Bulletins, and Circulars, Commissioner’s Office, Department of Game and Fish (025-01-002), GAA.
41. State Planning Board and the National Park Service, Report on Outdoor Recreation in Georgia (Atlanta: n.p., February 1939), 4, 57, Department of the Interior Library, Washington, D.C.
42. Russ Rymer, American Beach: How “Progress” Robbed a Black Town—and Nation—of History, Wealth, and Power (New York: Harper Perennial, Harper Collins, 1998); Jeff Wiltse, Contested Waters: A Social History of Swimming Pools in America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007); Andrew W. Kahrl, “The Political Work of Leisure: Class, Recreation, and African American Commemoration at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, 1881–1931,” Journal of Social History 42, no. 1 (2008): 57–77; Andrew W. Kahrl, “‘The Slightest Semblance of Unruliness’: Steamboat Excursions, Pleasure Resorts, and the Emergence of Segregation Culture on the Potomac River,” Journal of American History 94, no. 4 (March 2008): 1108–36; Terence Young, “‘A Contradiction in Democratic Government’: W. J. Trent, Jr., and the Struggle to Desegregate National Park Campgrounds,” Environmental History 14, no. 4 (October 2009): 651–82.
43. North Carolina State Parks, “Jones Lake State Park History,” http://www.ncparks.gov/Visit/parks/jone/history.php (February 16, 2013); North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of State Parks and Recreation, “Lake Waccamaw State Park General Management Plan,” March 19, 2007, I-9–I-10, http://www.ncparks.gov/About/plans/gmp/lawa/2007/desc.pdf (February 16, 2013).
44. Andrew W. Kahrl, The Land Was Ours: African American Beaches from Jim Crow to the Sunbelt South (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012); Andrew W. Kahrl, “The ‘Negro Park’ Question: Land, Labor, and Leisure in Pitt County, North Carolina, 1920–1930,” Journal of Southern History 79, no. 1 (February 2013): 113–42.
45. State Planning Board and the National Park Service, Report on Outdoor Recreation in Georgia, 4–5, 22–23. For other interpretations at the intersection of race, class, and gender, see Colin Fisher, “Race and US Environmental History,” in A Companion to American Environmental History, ed. Douglas Cazaux Sackman (Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 108–9; Harvey H. Jackson III, The Rise and Decline of the Redneck Riviera: An Insider’s History of the Florida-Alabama Coast (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012).
46. “L.S. Moody Traces History of Clarks Hill Development,” Augusta Herald, September 15, 1946, 12, folder 3, “Clark’s Hill News Clippings,” box 3, LMC; Lester Moody, “An Address Before the Georgia Recreation Workers Association,” Augusta, Georgia, March 7, 1946, 6, folder 4, “Local News,” box 2, LMC.
47. The Truth about the Clark’s Hill Project (n.p.: Clark’s Hill Authority of South Carolina, [1946?]), 17–18, Reese Library Special Collections, Augusta State University, Augusta, Ga. See also Joe Mulieri, “Funds Will Be Granted for Clark Hill Thurmond Tells Audience at Orangeburg,” news clipping (June 17, 1947), and “S.C. Governor Warns That Power Interests Still Seek to Gain Control of Clark Hill,” Augusta Herald, February 7, 1947, both in folder 3, “Clark’s Hill News Clippings,” box 3, LMC.
48. Thurmond’s speech can be found in Truth about the Clark’s Hill Project, 17; Allyn P. Bursley and the National Park Service, Exhibit II, Recreation, Exhibit A: Memorandum Report: Recreational Resources of the Clark Hill Reservoir, Savannah River, Georgia and South Carolina, Prepared August 22, 1945, in Definite Project Report on Savannah River Basin, Georgia and South Carolina, Clark Hill Project, Appendix XI, Recreation, complied by the Department of the Interior, National Park Service for the War Department, Corps of Engineers, South Atlantic Division (February 20, 1946), XI-A9, box 141, entry 53a114, RG 77, NAII.
49. White visitors had shared facilities in the past and expressed preference for segregated facilities; see Stephen Lewis Cox, “The History of Negro State Parks in South Carolina, 1940–1965” (M.A. thesis, University of South Carolina, 1992), 22–23, 25–26, and Pete Daniel, Lost Revolutions: The South in the 1950s (Chapel Hill and Washington, D.C.: University of North Carolina Press for the Smithsonian National Museum of American History, Washington, D.C., 2000), 243.
50. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Clark Hill Reservoir, Savannah River Basin, Georgia and South Carolina: General Information Proposed Recreational Development, Savannah District (October 1948), 4–5, box 3, LMC; “Clark Hill Dam Area Recreational Plans Announced by Army Corps of Engineers,” Augusta Chronicle, October 31, 1948, 4-B. In 1945, an NPS study recommended the Corps consider placing one African American state park at Hicks Creek between today’s Mistletoe State Park and Leah, Ga., before suggesting the Keg Creek location in 1948, and the NPS originally suggested the Hawe Creek (S.C.) site for an African American park (today this is a Corps campground) before recommending the Hickory Knob location.
51. The idea for 345-acre Carver State Park was hatched by former Tuskegee airman and Atlanta resident John Loyd Atkinson Sr. He originally wanted to build a private lake resort and replicate the American Beach (Amelia Island, Fla.) African American resort community assembled between 1935 and 1946 by Afro-American Industrial & Benefit Association founder and millionaire Abraham Lincoln Lewis. Though the private resort plans fell through, with Governor Herman Talmadge’s assistance in 1950 the state leased additional land from the Corps at Lake Allatoona, and Atkinson served as the park’s first superintendent until 1958. See Charles Atkinson (John Atkinson’s son) and Greg Germani, “State Parks (Segregated),” The Atlanta Time Machine, which includes images of four “Georgia State Parks for Negroes,” http://www.atlantatimemachine.com/misc/state_parks.htm (February 16, 2013); Billy Townsend, Georgia Department of Natural Resources, History of the Georgia State Parks and Historic Sites Division (October 2001), http://gastateparks.org/content/georgia/parks/georgia-parks-history.pdf (February 16, 2013); and Southern Regional Council, “State Parks for Negroes—New Tests of Equality,” New South 9, nos. 4 & 5 (April–May 1954): 7. George Washington Carver State Park was eventually consolidated with other state park property and renamed Red Top Mountain State Park, only to be divided again in 1975 when the old Carver portion of the park was transferred to the Bartow County park system to create Bartow Carver Park.
52. Cox, “History of Negro State Parks in South Carolina,” 12, 19.
53. Robert F. Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas: The Duke Power Company, 1904–1997 (Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2001), 107–9; Jack I. Hayes, South Carolina and the New Deal (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001), 75–84. After fighting this project in the 1930s, Duke Power eventually acquired the Greenwood Electrical Power Commission’s properties in 1966; see Duke Energy Carolinas, LLC, “South Carolina Only, Index of Rate Schedules,” October 5, 2009, 2, http://www.duke-energy.com/pdfs/SCMasterIndex.pdf (February 16, 2013).
54. Robert A. Waller, “The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Emergence of South Carolina’s State Park System, 1933–1942,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 104, no. 2 (April 2003): 112–13.
55. Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
56. Southern Regional Council, “A Court Rules That Parks Are for All” and “Text of The Park Decision,” New South 10, no. 4 (April 1955): 1, 3–4.
57. Southern Regional Council, “Court Rules That Parks Are for All,” 1. See also “History of Virginia State Parks,” Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/state_parks/his_parx.shtml (February 16, 2013).
58. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, The Master Plan for Development and Management, Clark Hill Reservoir, Savannah River, Georgia and South Carolina (Savannah District, December 1950), 62–66.
59. Charles H. Flory, South Carolina State Forester, to Col. W. E. Wilhoyt Jr., Savannah District, April 23, 1953, folder Legislation, 1953 Clarks Hill Project, box 35, OJP.
60. C. West Jacocks, “State Parks and Segregation,” South Carolina Magazine 20, no. 1 (January 1956): 3.
61. Southern Regional Council, “State Parks for Negroes,” 4.
62. Cox, “History of Negro State Parks in South Carolina,” chaps. 5 and 6.
63. Andrew Sparks, “Mile-Wide Dam for the Savannah,” Atlanta Journal Magazine, January 12, 1947, 8–9, folder 3, box 3, LMC.
64. “Government Increases Estimated Cost of Clark Hill to Nearly $50,000,000,” Augusta Chronicle, January 29, 1947, 4; J. S. Durant and B. H. Grant, Real Estate Planning Report for Clark Hill Reservoir, Savannah River Basin, Georgia and South Carolina (Atlanta: War Department, U.S. Division Engineer, Real Estate Branch, October 1942), box 66, accession 76E342, RG 77, NAS; Appendix IX, Real Estate, in Definite Project Report on Savannah River Basin, Georgia and South Carolina, Clark Hill Project, Corps of Engineers, South Atlantic Division (revised May 1, 1946), IX-3, folder 821.2, “Clark Hill Dam,” box 141, entry 53a114, RG 77, NAII.
65. Robert W. Benson, Cultural Resources Overview of the Sumter National Forest, prepared for Francis Marion and Sumter National Forests by Southeastern Archeological Services, Inc. (April 2006), 79.
66. Jesse D. Jennings, “River Basin Surveys: Origins, Operations, and Results, 1945–1969,” American Antiquity 50, no. 2 (April 1985): 281–96.
67. Clark Hill Field Notebooks, bk. 1, pp. 96, 99, 127, 139, box 595, CFM.
68. Eugene P. Odum, “Ecology and the Atomic Age,” Association of Southeastern Biologists Bulletin 4, no. 2 (1957): 27–29; Joel B. Hagen, An Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1992), chap. 6; Betty Jean Craige, Eugene Odum: Ecosystem Ecologist and Environmentalist (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001), chap. 3; Mary Beth Reed, Barbara Smith Strack, and U.S. Department of Energy, Savannah River Site at Fifty (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy and Government Printing Office, 2002), chap. 17.
69. Clark Hill Field Notebooks, bk. 1, p. 139, box 595, CFM.
70. Site No. 65, 38MC17, River Basin Survey Site Files, box 598, folder “38 MC McCormick County, SC 1948,” CFM.
71. Clark Hill Field Notebooks, bk. 1, pp. 137, 150, box 595, CFM.
72. Ibid., pp. 55, 61.
73. Site No. 56, 9LC67, River Basin Survey Site Files, box 598, folder “9 LC 1–98 (Lincoln County, GA) s.d.,” CFM.
74. Edward M. Riley, The Survey of the Historic Sites of the Clark Hill Reservoir Area, South Carolina and Georgia (Richmond, Va.: National Park Service, June 1949), 12–15, 17, 27–28, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Savannah District Library, Savannah, Ga.
75. Sparks, “Mile-Wide Dam for the Savannah.”
76. Riley, Survey of the Historic Sites of the Clark Hill Reservoir Area, 15.
77. “Power Company Seeks to Halt Clark Hill Work,” Augusta Chronicle, April, 19, 1947, folder 3, “Clarks Hill News Clippings,” box 3, LMC; Savannah River Special Board, Clark Hill Navigation–Flood Control–Power Project, 6, 46; Henry E. Barber and Allen R. Gann, A History of the Savannah District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Savannah, Ga.: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1989), 427. Historians have evaluated other land acquisition processes in the Tennessee Valley and reached similar conclusions; see Michael J. McDonald and John Muldowny, TVA and the Dispossessed: The Resettlement of Population in the Norris Dam Area (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1982), 154, and Darren Anthony Shuler, “On Our Land: Progress, Destruction, and the Tennessee Valley Authority’s Tellico Dam Project” (M.A. thesis, University of Georgia, 2000). Most recently, Robert P. Shapard also reached this conclusion based on analysis of oral histories, real estate files, and condemnation cases associated with the Clarks Hill project; see “Building an Inland Sea: Clarks Hill Lake on the Upper Savannah and the Twentieth-Century Lives, Land, and River Hidden by Its Waters” (M.A. thesis, North Carolina State University, 2009), chaps. 3 and 4. The history behind the Lexington Water Power Company’s Lake Murray (1927; 5,000 people removed) and the New Deal’s Santee-Cooper (1938; 900 families removed) signifies the need for greater scrutiny of project histories. See Coy Bayne, Lake Murray: Legend and Leisure, 3rd ed., rev. (n.p.: Bayne Publishing Co., 1999), and T. Robert Hart, “The Lowcountry Landscape: Politics, Preservation, and the Santee-Cooper Project,” Environmental History 18, no. 1 (January 2013): 127–56.
78. Barber and Gann, History of the Savannah District, 422–26.
79. Andrew Sparks, “Georgia’s New Ocean: Builds Up behind Clark Hill Dam,” Atlanta Journal and Constitution Magazine, September 7, 1952, 28–30, folder 3, box 3, LMC.
80. “Lincoln, Columbia Counties Opposed Rerouting of Road,” Augusta Chronicle, June 27, 1948, 1; Durant and Grant, Real Estate Planning Report for Clark Hill Reservoir, 1–2; Appendix VII, Relocations, in Definite Project Report on Savannah River Basin, Georgia and South Carolina, Clark Hill Project, VII-20; Appendix X, Malaria Control, in Definite Project Report on Savannah River Basin, Georgia and South Carolina, Clark Hill Project, X-1 through X-2, and X-A2 through X-A4; “Contracts Awarded for Clearing in the Clark Hill Reservoir,” [unknown clipping], April 13, 1950, folder 3, Hartwell Reservoir, box 4, LMC; Mary Carter Winter, “Strong Call Is Made for Total Clearing of Clark Hill Basin,” Augusta Chronicle, April 26, 1950, 1, box 3, LMC.
81. Editors, “Clark’s Hill,” Atlanta Journal, May 29, 1947, LMC.
82. “S.C. Governor Warns That Power Interests Still Seek to Gain Control of Clark Hill,” Augusta Herald, February, 7, 1947, 1, LMC.
83. “Thurmond Sees Development of Water Resources as Key to Continued US Progress,” Columbia State, May 4, 1947, 10-B, LMC.
84. Truth about the Clark’s Hill Project, 20.
85. William Faulkner, Big Woods (New York: Random House, 1955), 170.
1. “Georgians Pray for Rain,” Augusta Chronicle, October 11, 1954, 2; “Georgia Drought Rated with Worst,” Augusta Chronicle, December 28, 1954, 1.
2. “Atlanta May Ration Water,” Augusta Chronicle, October 14, 1954, 1.
3. “Emergency Water Shortages Hit Six Georgia Communities; Bremen Situation Is Critical,” Augusta Chronicle, October 6, 1954, 1.
4. “Drought Devastating Crops; Losses Already Top Million,” Augusta Chronicle, June 30, 1954, 1; “Disaster Aid Sought in 16 Area Counties,” Augusta Chronicle, August 12, 1954, 3-A.
5. “State Nurses $100,000,000 Bruise from 1954 Drought,” Augusta Chronicle, November 7, 1954, 4A, originally published in the Atlanta Journal.
6. T. M. Forbes, Executive Vice President, Cotton Manufactures Association of Georgia, “Cooperation in the Use and Conservation of Georgia’s Water Resources,” speech, Atlanta, Ga., December 5, 1955, 4, Georgia Water Use & Conservation Files, Department of Agriculture, Commissioner’s Office, Commissioner’s Subject Files, 1955–1958, 13-1-2, GAA.
7. Karl Boyd Brooks, Public Power, Private Dams: The Hells Canyon High Dam Controversy (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006), esp. 222 and chap. 7, “Unplugging the New Deal: Hells Canyon High Dam and the Postwar Public-Power Debate.”
8. Mark W. T. Harvey provides the best interpretation of the Echo Park story; see A Symbol of Wilderness: Echo Park and the American Conservation Movement (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994). See also Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water (New York: Penguin, 1986; rev. and updated ed., 1993).
9. James Cobb, The Selling of the South: The Southern Crusade for Industrial Development, 1936–1990 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Bruce J. Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt: Federal Policy, Economic Development, and the Transformation of the South, 1938–1980 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1994).
10. Alan Brinkley, End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Knopf, 1995).
11. Major Corps projects completed between 1950 and 1985 in Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and North Carolina include the following twenty-two developments: Allatoona, J. Strom Thurmond Dam and Lake, Philpott, John H. Kerr Dam and Reservoir, Buford Dam and Lake Lanier, Jim Woodruff Dam and Lake Seminole, Smith Reservoir and Lock & Dam, Hartwell, Walter F. Georgia, George W. Andrews Lock and Dam, W. Kerr Scott Dam and Reservoir, Holt Lock & Dam, R. E. “Bob” Woodruff Lake and Robert F. Henry Lock & Dam, William “Bill” Dannelly Reservoir and Millers Ferry Lock & Dam, B. Everett Jordan Lake and Dam, West Point, Claiborne Lake Lock & Dam, Carters Lake, Falls Lake, Richard B. Russell, Yazoo Headwaters Project, and the Tenn-Tom Waterway.
12. On the New Right and “the Rise of Modern Conservatism,” see Dan Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995); Lisa McGirr, Suburban Warriors: The Origins of the New American Right (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001); Kevin M. Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005); Matthew D. Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006); James M. Turner, “‘The Specter of Environmentalism’: Wilderness, Environmental Politics, and the Evolution of the New Right,” Journal of American History 96, no. 1 (June 2009): 123–48; and Brian Allen Drake, “The Skeptical Environmentalist: Barry Goldwater and the Environmental Management State,” Environmental History 15, no. 4 (October 2010): 587–611.
13. Report on Savannah River, House Document 64, 74th Cong., 1st sess., January 3, 1935, 102; Savannah River, Ga., House Document 657, 78th Cong., 2nd sess., 43.
14. Definite Project Report: Hartwell Reservoir, Savannah River, Georgia and South Carolina, vol. 1, Corps of Engineers, Savannah District (December 15, 1952), VIII, Department of the Interior Library, Washington, D.C.
15. “Clarks Hill Power May Be Increased,” Augusta Chronicle, February 25, 1949, 1.
16. Flood Control Act of 1950, Public Law No. 516, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., May 17, 1950.
17. “$60,000,000 Hartwell Dam Project Launched by Clarks Hill Authority,” Anderson Independent, November 23, 1948, Correspondence and Materials, 1949, Rivers and Harbors Series, RRC.
18. Wilton E. Hall, Butler B. Hare, Louie B. Morris, and L. S. Moody, The Hartwell Project … Now: Presented to the Congress of the United States by the People of South Carolina and Georgia (Anderson, S.C.: Hartwell Steering Committee, January 15, 1949), 23, Correspondence and Materials, 1949, Rivers and Harbors Series, RRC.
19. Jason Scott Smith, Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 191.
20. Kari Frederickson, The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932–1968 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 26.
21. Gilbert C. Fite, Richard B. Russell, Jr., Senator from Georgia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 318. See also Josephine Mellinchamp, Senators from Georgia (Huntsville, Ala.: Strode Publishers, 1976), 245–60.
22. Harold D. Lasswell, “The Garrison State,” American Journal of Sociology 46, no. 4 (January 1941): 455–69; Kari Frederickson, “Confronting the Garrison State: South Carolina in the Early Cold War Era,” Journal of Southern History 72, no. 3 (May 2006): 349–78.
23. For information on NSC-68, see Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt, 109; Walter LaFeber, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–2000 (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002), 101–3; Granville M. Read, Savannah River Plant (E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Company), and Rotary Club (Wilmington, Del.), “The Savannah River Project”: A Speech by Granville M. Read, Chief Engineer, E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Company, before the Rotary Club, Wilmington, Delaware, November 18, 1954; Mary Beth Reed, Barbara Smith Strack, and U.S. Department of Energy, Savannah River Site at Fifty (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy and Government Printing Office, 2002).
24. Definite Project Report: Hartwell Reservoir, 70–71.
25. Rep. W. J. Bryan Dorn, Washington, D.C., to Rep. Gerald Ford Jr., Washington, D.C., May 28, 1951, folder Topical Files, 1951–1952, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, box 39, WDP; Senator Olin D. Johnston, before House Appropriations Committee on Hartwell Dam Funding, Legislation, February 7, 1952, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, box 32, OJP; Senator Richard B. Russell Jr., Washington, D.C., to E. B. Woodward, April 9, 1952, Correspondence, 1949–1958, Rivers and Harbors Series, RRC.
26. Correspondence between E. M. Lander Jr., Professor, Clemson, S.C., to Rep. William J. Bryan Dorn, Washington, D.C., June 14 and 20, 1953, folder Topical Files, 1953–1954, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, box 41, WDP; Savannah River Operations Office, Atomic Energy Commission, “Comments on Hartwell Dam,” 1956, folder Topical Files, 1955–1956, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, box 43, WDP; Major General E. C. Itschner, Chief of Engineers, Washington, D.C., to Senator J. Strom Thurmond, Washington, D.C., December 21, 1956, J. Strom Thurmond, Mss 100, folder Hartwell Dam, November 23–December 29, 1956, box 3, Subject Correspondence, 1956, STP.
27. C. T. Wyche, Greenville, S.C., to Senator J. Strom Thurmond, Washington, D.C., April 9, 1958, box 23, Subject Correspondence Series, 1958, STP.
28. Savannah District’s Shoreline Management Program, http://www.sas.usace.army.mil/About/DivisionsandOffices/OperationsDivision/HartwellDamandLake/ShorelineManagement.aspx (August 1, 2013); “Shoreline Management on Civil Works Projects,” in Title 36 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 327.30, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2001-title36-v013/xml/CFR-2001-title36-v013-chapIII.xml#seqnum327.30 (August 1, 2013).
29. C. T. Wyche, Greenville, S.C., to Senator J. Strom Thurmond, Washington, D.C., October 22, 1959, folder Rivers and Harbors 3-1 (Hartwell Dam) February 21–November 25, 1959, box 22, Subject Correspondence Series, 1959, STP; Robert L. Small, Greenville, S.C., to Senator J. Strom Thurmond, Washington, D.C., September 25, 1961, folder Rivers and Harbors 3-1 (Hartwell Dam) March 17, 1961–November 3, 1961, box 30, Subject Correspondence 1961, STP.
30. Major General W. K. Wilson Jr., Deputy Chief of Engineers for Construction, to Senator J. Strom Thurmond, Washington, D.C., November 25, 1959, folder Rivers and Harbors 3-1 (Hartwell Dam) February 21–November 25, 1959, box 22, Subject Correspondence Series, 1959, STP; Col. W. A. Stevens, Savannah District Engineer, to Senator J. Strom Thurmond, Washington, D.C., October 3, 1961, folder Rivers and Harbors 3-1 (Hartwell Dam) March 17, 1961–November 3, 1961, box 30, Subject Correspondence Series, 1961, STP.
31. Some of the potential real estate investors included C. T. Wyche (Greenville attorney); Charlie Ballenger (Ballenger Paving Company, founded 1927); Buck Mickel (Daniel Construction Company, a firm that landed industrial and federal agency contracts); and Francis Hipp (The Liberty Corporation; his father founded Liberty Life Insurance). See Knowitall.org and ETV Creative Services, “Legacy of Leadership” (Columbia, S.C.), http://www.knowitall.org/legacy/index.html (August 1, 2013), and “Charlie Daniel of Daniel Construction Company,” South Carolina Magazine 15, no. 10 (October 1951): 12.
32. See “Robert’s Firm to Supervise Army Project,” Atlanta Constitution, December 12, 1940, 15; “Robert Firm Consultant in Port Survey,” Atlanta Constitution, October 6, 1945, 6; and Robert and Company, http://www.robertandcompany.com/History.html (August 1, 2013).
33. Clemson Alumni Corporation, Preliminary Report on the Damage to the Property of Clemson College by the Proposed Hartwell Dam Development, April 1951, provided by A. G. Stanford, V.P., Robert and Company Associates, Atlanta, Ga., to Senator J. Strom Thurmond, Washington, D.C., April 12, 1957, folder Hartwell Dam, November 29, 1956–October 18, 1957, box 19, Subject Correspondence Series, 1957, STP.
34. Cecil L. Reid, Al G. Stanford, and Ed D. Sloan, The Truth about “Hartwell” (Fredericksburg, Va.: January 7, 1952), pamphlet, Correspondence—Hartwell Dam Material, 1949–1957, Rivers and Harbors Series, RRC.
35. Ibid., 5, 24–25.
36. J. C. Turner et al. to Senator Olin D. Johnston, Washington, D.C., February 25, 1957, box 61, folder Legislation, 1957, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, OJP; Editors, “Remember These ‘Predictions’?” Anderson Independent, April 26, 1963, OJP; Senator J. Strom Thurmond, Aiken, S.C., to Alex McCullough, Washington, D.C., November 26, 1956, Subject Correspondence 1956, box 3, folder Hartwell Dam, November 23–December 29, 1956, STP.
37. Rep. William J. Bryan Dorn to E. M. Lander Jr., Professor, Clemson, S.C., June 20, 1953, folder Topical Files, 1953–1954, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, box 41, WDP.
38. Harriet L. Herring, [J. Herman Johnson,] Rupert B. Vance, and T. J. Woofter Jr., A Survey of the Catawba Valley: A Study Made by the Institute for Research in Social Science for the Tennessee Valley Authority, 2 vols. (Chapel Hill: Institute for Research in Social Justice at the University of North Carolina, 1935), 1:3 (“hydro-industrial empire”).
39. D. Nabow, “Statement of Duke Power Company,” before the Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government: Task Force of Water Resources and Power, June 2, 1954, 9, folder Topical Files, 1953–1954, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, box 41, WDP.
40. S. Maner Martin, Clemson, S.C., to Rep. W. J. B. Dorn, Washington, D.C., December 4, 1956, folder Topical Files, 1955–1956, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, box 43, WDP.
41. Lucile Buriss Watson, Clemson, S.C., to Senator (elect) J. Strom Thurmond, Washington, D.C., November 30, 1954, folder Hartwell, box 10, Subject Correspondence Series, 1955, STP.
42. Bill Allen, “State Hooks Title: ‘Paradise o’ Ponds,’” Atlanta Journal, September 13, 1953, 12. Allen claimed 15,000 irrigated acres, and another source cited 27,700 acres: Georgia Water Use and Conservation Committee, Water in Georgia: A Report on the Historical, Physical, and Legal Aspects of Water in Georgia, Prepared and Submitted to the Governor, the General Assembly, and the People of Georgia ([Atlanta]: Georgia Water Law Revision Commission, 1955), 55.
43. Georgia Water Use and Conservation Committee, Water in Georgia, 18–23.
44. Frank K. Meyers, “Washington Residents Facing Possible 14-day Water Supply,” Augusta Chronicle, August 12, 1954, 1D.
45. “East Point Buys Water from Lake,” Rome News-Tribune, October 3, 1954, 2.
46. W. D. Workman Jr., “South Carolina Legislators Are Facing Problem of Protecting State’s Water,” Augusta Chronicle, January 3, 1954, 1.
47. Georgia Water Use and Conservation Committee, Water in Georgia, 4, 7.
48. Ibid., 4.
49. “Half of Georgia’s Lost Crops within 500 Feet of Water,” Atlanta Journal, October 20, 1954, 4; Lynn Willoughby, Flowing through Time: A History of the Lower Chattahoochee River (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999), 167–73.
50. Benjamin Mortimer Hall and Max R. Hall, Second Report on the Water-Powers of Georgia, Geological Survey of Georgia, Bulletin No. 16 (Atlanta: Franklin-Turner Co., 1908), 21.
51. “Drought Spotlights Need for Irrigation Planning,” Rome News-Tribune, October 7, 1954, 14.
52. “Farm Irrigation Is Useless without Ample Water Supply, Georgia Authority Points Out,” Augusta Chronicle, October 16, 1954, 3.
53. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, CPI Inflation Calculator, http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm.
54. Allen, “State Hooks Title,” 12. Allen claimed 15,000 irrigated acres, and another source claimed 27,700 acres: Georgia Water Use and Conservation Committee, Water in Georgia, 55. For irrigation loan sources, see display ad, Georgia Railroad Bank, Augusta Chronicle, August 8, 1954, 6A; “Southeast’s Irrigation Need Pointed Up by Long Drought, Georgia Agriculturalist Says,” Augusta Chronicle, September 30, 1954, 5C; “C. and S. Bank Announces Plan for Farm Irrigation,” Augusta Chronicle, October 2, 1954, 9; “Cheaper Loans for Irrigation Announced,” Augusta Chronicle, October 24, 1954, 13B; and “Tifton Farmer Gets Loan for Irrigation of His Land,” Augusta Chronicle, December 3, 1954, 8C.
55. Leila B. Watson, Clemson, S.C., to Senator Olin D. Johnston, Washington, D.C., April 1, 1954, folder Legislation, 1954, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, box 43, OJP.
56. On the Water Facilities Act (1937), see A Brief History of the Farmers Home Administration (Washington, D.C.: USDA, Farmers Home Administration, 1989), 4, http://www.rurdev.usda.gov/rd/70th/History%200f%20Farmers%20Home.pdf (August 1, 2013), and Eugene C. Buie, A History of United States Department of Agriculture Water Resource Activities (Washington, D.C.: USDA, SCS, September 1979), 25, http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_021271.pdf (August 1, 2013).
57. Buie, History of United States Department of Agriculture Water Resource Activities, 25.
58. Luna B. Leopold and Thomas Maddock Jr., The Flood Control Controversy: Big Dams, Little Dams, and Land Management (New York: Ronald Press Co., 1954), ix.
59. Elmer T. Peterson, Big Dam Foolishness: The Problem of Modern Flood Control and Water Storage (New York: Devin-Adair Co., 1954).
60. David A. Tillinghast, “Twelve Mile Creek Waters Begin to Yield,” [Greenville Piedmont, May?, 1955], newspaper clipping included with Lucile Watson, Clemson, S.C., to Senator (elect) J. Strom Thurmond, Washington, D.C., May 19, 1955, folder Hartwell, box 10, Subject Correspondence Series, 1955, STP.
61. T. R. Waring, editor, Charleston News and Courier, to Senator J. Strom Thurmond, Washington, D.C., June 4, 1955, folder Hartwell, box 10, Subject Correspondence Series, 1955, STP.
62. “‘Stop, Look and Listen’ Notes on Hartwell Dam Construction,” Charleston News and Courier, June 12, 1955, 16B, folder Hartwell, box 10, Subject Correspondence Series, 1955, STP.
63. T. Wilbur Thornhill, Charleston Oil Company, Charleston, S.C., to Senator Olin D. Johnston, Washington, D.C., December 11, 1956, box 61, folder Legislation, 1957, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, OJP.
64. Donald J. Pisani, To Reclaim a Divided West: Water, Law, and Public Policy, 1848–1902 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992), 31.
65. Georgia Water Use and Conservation Committee, Water in Georgia, 62.
66. “Summary Notes of Conference Held in Office of District Engineer,” Col. T. Def. Rogers, District Engineer, Savannah, Ga., February, 21, 1955, folder Clarks Hill, box 5, Subject Correspondence Series, 1955, STP.
67. Water Supply Act of 1958 (Public Law 85-500).
68. Sara V. Liverance, “McCormick County Citizens Disappointed with Dam,” Greenville News, [January 6, 1955?], folder Hartwell, box 10, Subject Correspondence Series, 1955, STP.
69. Brigadier General William F. Cassidy, Assistant Chief of Engineers for Civil Works, Washington, D.C., to Senator J. Strom Thurmond, November 2, 1959, folder Rivers and Harbors 3-1 (Hartwell Dam) February 21–November 25, 1959, box 22, Subject Correspondence Series, 1959, STP. At least five communities withdraw water from the Clarks Hill reservoir via water contract and storage reallocation mechanisms; see H. Al Pless, “Reallocation of Water Storage in Federal Water Projects,” Proceedings of 1991 Georgia Water Resources Conference, held March 19–20, 1991, at the University of Georgia, edited by Kathryn J. Hatcher, 129–30. For an excellent summary of the Water Supply Act, see Cynthia Brougher and Nicole T. Cater, Reallocation of Water Storage at Federal Water Projects for Municipal and Industrial Water Supply (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, October 31, 2012).
70. “McCormick Wants Gov’t. Restrictions Removed,” Anderson Free Press, November 19, 1959, 1.
71. Flood Control Act of 1950; Maj. General William F. Cassidy, Assistant Chief of Engineers for Civil Works, Washington, D.C., to Senator Olin D. Johnston, Washington, D.C., February 25, 1960, folder Legislation, 1960, Persons, Hall, Wilton E., box 78, OJP.
72. Ernest B. Rogers Jr., An Evaluation of Carters Island and Goat Island Reservoirs Proposed to be Built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on the Savannah River, for the McCormick (S.C.) Chamber of Commerce and the Abbeville County (S.C.) Planning and Development Board (February 17, 1960), folder Rivers and Harbors 4 (Rivers) January 8–May 24, 1960, box 31, Subject Correspondence Series, 1960, STP.
73. Frank E. Harrison, before the Board of Engineers, Savannah (Ga.) District, February 17, 1960, folder Rivers and Harbors 4 (Rivers) January 8–May 24, 1960, box 31, Subject Correspondence Series, 1960, STP.
74. Tracy Robillard, Public Affairs Specialist for the Savannah District, “The Significance of Water Supply in the SRB,” Balancing the Basin (August 21, 2013), http://balancingthe basin.armylive.dodlive.mil/2013/08/21/the-significance-of-water-supply-in-the-srb/ (March 30, 2014); personal communication with Paula Feldmeier, Assistant District Counsel, Savannah District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, November 5, 2013.
75. Robert T. Sorrells, Clemson Experimental Forest: Its First Fifty Years (Clemson, S.C.: Clemson University, College of Forest and Recreation Resources, 1984), 21–23; Jerome V. Reel, The High Seminary, vol. 1, A History of the Clemson Agricultural College of South Carolina, 1889–1964 (Clemson: Clemson University Digital Press, 2011), http://www.clemson.edu/cedp/cudp/pubs/ths-v1/ (August 1, 2013), 451–54.
76. Definite Project Report: Hartwell Reservoir, 41–42.
77. Harold Timms, Seneca, S.C., to Senator J. Strom Thurmond, Washington, D.C., November 21, 1955, folder Clarks Hill, February 15–April 4, 1956, box 2, Subject Correspondence Series, 1956, STP.
78. Darren Anthony Shuler, “On Our Land: Progress, Destruction, and the Tennessee Valley Authority’s Tellico Dam Project” (M.A. thesis, University of Georgia, 2000); Robert P. Shapard, “Building an Inland Sea: Clarks Hill Lake on the Upper Savannah and the Twentieth-Century Lives, Land, and River Hidden by Its Waters” (M.A. thesis, North Carolina State University, 2009). The Hartwell project required the removal of more people than did Clarks Hill, but apparently far fewer than relocated for two South Carolina hydroelectric projects: the Lexington Water Power Company’s Lake Murray (1927, 5,000 people) and the New Deal’s Santee-Cooper (1938, 900 families). See Coy Bayne, Lake Murray: Legend and Leisure, 3rd ed., rev. (n.p.: Bayne Publishing Co., 1999), and T. Robert Hart, “The Lowcountry Landscape: Politics, Preservation, and the Santee-Cooper Project,” Environmental History 18, no. 1 (January 2013): 127–56.
79. NAII, RG21, contains the U.S. District Court’s Western District of South Carolina civil case files pertaining to the Hartwell condemnation proceedings; for example, see boxes 254, 257–60.
80. Henry E. Barber and Allen R. Gann, A History of the Savannah District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Savannah, Ga.: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1989), 441.
81. Senate Bill 3172, 87th Cong., 2nd sess., April 16, 1962, folder Legislation 1962, box 167, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, OJP.
82. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, CPI Inflation Calculator, http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm.
83. Barber and Gann, History of the Savannah District, 434–44; Jeffrey S. Allen, Robert T. Carey, Lori A. Dickes, Ellen W. Saltzman, and Corey N. Allen for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Savannah District, An Economic Analysis of Lower Water Levels in Hartwell Lake: Final Report, November 8, 2010, 13.
84. Medford Theodore Thomson and R. F. Carter, Effect of a Severe Drought (1954) on Streamflow in Georgia, The Geological Survey, Bulletin Number 73 (Atlanta, 1963), 1; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers National Inventory of Dams (2013), http://geo.usace.army.mil/pgis/f?p=397:1:0; Georgia Soil and Water Conservation Commission, http://gaswcc.georgia.gov/watershed-dams.
1. Ron Rash, One Foot in Eden (New York: Henry Holt, 2002), 4, 214.
2. In 1973, Congress renamed Trotters Shoals the Richard B. Russell Dam and Lake, but I refer to the project as Trotters Shoals throughout this chapter.
3. Craig E. Colten makes a similar argument in “Southern Pollution Permissiveness: Another Regional Myth?” Southeastern Geographer 48, no. 1 (May 2008): 75–96.
4. Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890–1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959); Samuel P. Hays and Barbara D. Hays, Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955–1985 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), chap. 5 and p. 43 for quote; Samuel P. Hays, A History of Environmental Politics since 1945 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000), 1855–88. See also Adam W. Rome, The Bulldozer in the Countryside: Suburban Sprawl and the Rise of American Environmentalism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Adam W. Rome, “‘Give Earth a Chance’: The Environmental Movement and the Sixties,” Journal of American History 90, no. 2 (September 2003): 52–54; and Christopher Sellers, “Nature and Blackness in Suburban Passage,” in “To Love the Wind and the Rain”: African Americans and Environmental History, ed. Diane D. Glave and Mark Stoll (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2006), 93–119.
5. Andrew Beecher McCallister, “‘A Source of Pleasure, Profit, and Pride’: Tourism, Industrialization, and Conservation at Tallulah Falls, Georgia, 1820–1915” (M.A. thesis, University of Georgia, 2002).
6. Frank Wright, “Anchor of the Deep South,” AT Journeys: The Magazine of the Appalachian-Trial Conservancy 1, no. 3 (November–December 2005): 245–28; Paul S. Sutter, Driven Wild: How the Fight against Automobiles Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 3–4.
7. Jack E. Davis, An Everglades Providence: Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the American Environmental Century (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009); Albert G. Way, Conserving Longleaf: Herbert Stoddard and the Rise of Ecological Land Management (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011); Frederick R. Davis, “A Naturalist’s Place: Archie Carr and the Nature of Florida,” in Paradise Lost? The Environmental History of Florida, ed. Jack E. Davis and Raymond Arsenault (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005), 72–91; Steven Noll and David Tegeder, Ditch of Dreams: The Cross Florida Barge Canal and the Struggle for Florida’s Future (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2009).
8. Betty Jean Craige, Eugene Odum: Ecosystem Ecologist and Environmentalist (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001).
9. Paul Charles Milazzo, Unlikely Environmentalists: Congress and Clean Water, 1945–1972 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2006); Craig Colten, “Contesting Pollution in Dixie: The Case of Corney Creek,” Journal of Southern History 72, no. 3 (August 2006): 605–34.
10. Hays and Hays, Beauty, Health, and Permanence, 43.
11. Duke Power, “Keowee-Toxaway Timeline,” folder Topical Files, 1965, Keowee-Toxaway, box 72, WDP. Robert F. Durden noted that Duke began acquiring this property before the Catawba River’s 1916 flood; see Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas: The Duke Power Company, 1904–1997 (Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2001), 141. Also see “Tax Facts about Hart Dam,” South Carolina Farmer, March 1957; Old Calhoun Estate: James P. Nickles, Attorney, Abbeville, S.C., to Rep. W. J. B. Dorn, Washington, D.C., September 21, 1959, folder Topical Files, 1962, Trotters Shoals, box 63, WDP; James P. Nickles to Senator Richard Russell, October 9, 1962, folder Legislation 1962, Public Works, Dams, Trotters Shoals, box 167, OJP; The History Group, Inc., Historical Investigations of the Richard B. Russell Multiple Resource Area (Atlanta: History Group, 1981), prepared for the Archeological Services Division, National Park Service, and funded by the Savannah District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 177, 189; and Sharyn Kane and Richard Keeton, Beneath These Waters: Archeological and Historical Studies of 11,500 Years along the Savannah River (Savannah, Ga.: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Interagency Archeological Services Division, National Park Service, 1993), 268.
12. Marko Maunula, “Another Southern Paradox: The Arrival of Foreign Corporations: Change and Continuity in Spartanburg, South Carolina,” in Globalization and the American South, ed. James C. Cobb and William Stueck (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2005), 164–84.
13. Duke Power Company, “Presentation for 1959 Edison Award,” 1960, folder Topical Files, 1962, Duke Power Co., box 61, WDP.
14. Duke Power Company, “The Catawba River Story,” n.d. [probably 1961], folder Legislation 1961, Duke Power, box 81, OJP.
15. The Catawba-Wateree River merges with the Congaree River to form the Santee River in South Carolina. New Dealers built the Santee Cooper Hydroelectric and Navigation Project–located downstream of this confluence—beginning in 1938, and it was operational by 1942. The South Carolina Public Service Authority oversees the state-owned water and electrical utility’s operations today. See T. Robert Hart, “The Lowcountry Landscape: Politics, Preservation, and the Santee-Cooper Project,” Environmental History 18, no. 1 (January 2013): 127–56.
16. “Greenwood, Calhoun Falls Opposed to New Dams,” Anderson Independent, November 18, 1959; “Elberton and Augusta Favor New Dams on Savannah,” Anderson Independent, November 18, 1959; “Savannah Development Debated at Hearing,” Anderson Independent, November 20, 1959, clippings in Rivers and Harbors Series, RRC.
17. Correspondence, W. Harper Welborn, Attorney, Anderson, S.C., to Rep. W. J. B. Dorn, Washington, D.C., December 28, 1956, and January 3, 1957, folder Topical Files, 1957–1958, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, box 43, WDP.
18. “Duke Power President Promises Huge Plant,” Anderson Independent, November 20, 1959, 16, clipping, folder Rivers and Harbors 4 (Rivers) January 21–December 29, 1959, box 23, Subject Correspondence Series, 1959, STP.
19. “Why Leave the Job Half Done?” editorial originally published in the Athens Banner-Herald and reprinted in the Anderson Independent, November 26, 1959, clipping in RRC.
20. Minutes from a meeting held in Senator Richard B. Russell’s office, April 13, 1961, folder Legislation 1961, Duke Power, box 81, OJP.
21. “Hollings Blocks 2 New Dams,” Anderson Independent, May 14, 1960, clipping in RRC.
22. “We Oppose Trotters Shoals,” Augusta Chronicle Herald, April 28, 1963.
23. L. S. Moody, Augusta Chamber of Commerce, to Peyton S. Hawes, Elberton, Ga., August 24, 1961, and Notice of Report on Savannah River, Georgia and South Carolina Trotters Shoals Reservoir, February 19, 1962, Trotters Shoals Dam—Material, 1961–1965, Rivers and Harbors Series, RRC.
24. Major General Keith R. Barney, Chairman, Board of Engineers for Rivers and Harbors, to Chief of Engineers, Department of the Army, March 22, 1962, folder Rivers and Harbors 3 (Dams and Reservoirs) March 2–December 18, 1962, box 28, Subject Correspondence Series, 1962, STP.
25. Draft statement, Rep. W. J. B. Dorn, to Governor Donald S. Russell, Columbia, S.C., March 18, 1963, Rivers and Harbors 3 (Dams and Reservoirs), folder 1, February 18–March 29, 1963, Subject Correspondence Series, 1962, box 32, STP.
26. Guest list, folder Topical Files, 1955–1956, Mead Corporation, box 43, WDP.
27. R. M. Cooper, Columbia, S.C., to Rep. W. J. B. Dorn, Washington, D.C., July 31, 1956, folder Topical Files, 1955–1956, Mead Corporation, box 43, WDP.
28. Allatoona (1950), Clarks Hill (1952), Lanier (1956), Woodruff/Seminole (1957), Walter F. George (1963), George W. Andrews (1963), and Hartwell (1963).
29. James P. Nickles, Attorney, Abbeville, S.C., to Rep. W. J. B. Dorn, Washington, D.C., March 19, 1962, folder Topical Files, 1962, Trotters Shoals, box 63, WDP.
30. “Free Enterprise and Trotters Shoals,” Crawfordville Advocate-Democrat, May 3, 1963, clipping, folder Topical Files, 1963, Trotters Shoals, box 65, WDP; “Does Georgia Want Industry?” Macon (Ga.) News, May 6, 1963, clipping, folder Topical Files, 1963, Trotters Shoals, box 66, WDP; “Private Enterprise Best,” Savannah (Ga.) Morning News, June 1, 1963, clipping, folder Topical Files, 1963, Trotters Shoals, box 65, WDP; Gov. Carl E. Sanders, Atlanta, Ga., to Scott Nixon, Atlanta, Ga., June 14, 1963, folder Topical Files, 1963, Trotters Shoals, box 65, WDP.
31. Durden, Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas, 131–34, 134 (Dorn quote); “Duke Plans $700 Million Oconee, Pickens Projects,” Anderson Mail, January 2, 1965, folder Legislation Clippings, Industry, box 158, OJP.
32. “Duke Tells Long Range Power Plans,” unknown newspaper clipping, January 2, 1965, News clippings 1965, Pre-Authorization Series, RWC.
33. “Project Pushed for Duke Power,” New York Times, January 11, 1965, 39.
34. Statement, Rep. W. J. B. Dorn, “Trotters Shoals, Middleton Shoals, and Keowee-Toxaway,” July 19, 1966, folder Topical Files, 1965, Trotters Shoals, box 74, WDP.
35. “Switches Position on Trotters Shoals: Dorn Says Now Backing Both River Projects,” Anderson Independent, June 20, 1966, clipping in RWC; Rivers and Harbors Act of 1966, Public Law 89-789, 89th Cong., H.R. 18233, November 7, 1966, 16.
36. Peyton S. Hawes, Chairman, Trotters Shoals Steering Committee, Brief … In Support of the Trotters Shoals Project, Savannah River, Georgia and South Carolina, May 27, 1963, Rivers and Harbors 3 (Dams and Reservoirs), folder III, May 20–June 28, 1963, box 32, Subject Correspondence Series, 1962, STP.
37. James M. Fallows and Ralph Nader, The Water Lords: Ralph Nader’s Study Group Report on Industry and Environmental Crisis in Savannah, Georgia (New York: Grossman, 1971).
38. James Silver, A Report of the Fish and Wildlife Resources in Relation to the Water Development Plan for the Clark Hill Reservoir, Savannah River Basin, Georgia and South Carolina for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Atlanta, Ga.: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, July 1946), folder 821.2, “Clark Hill Dam,” box 140, entry 53a114, RG 77 NAII; “Appendix X, Malaria Control,” in Definite Project Report on Savannah River Basin, Georgia and South Carolina, Clark Hill Project, Corps of Engineers, South Atlantic Division (revised May 1, 1946), folder 821.2, “Clark Hill Dam,” box 141, entry 53a114, RG 77, NAII.
39. Colten, “Southern Pollution Permissiveness.”
40. Daniel Schaffer, “Managing Water in the Tennessee Valley in the Post-War Period,” Environmental Review 13, no. 2 (Summer 1989): 1–16, esp. 7. For more on one of the Tennessee River’s polluters, see Richard A. Bartlett, Troubled Waters: Champion International and the Pigeon River Controversy (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1995).
41. The Corps’ Savannah River, Georgia Review Report (July 1, 1959) was quoted extensively in Ernest B. Rogers Jr., An Evaluation of Carters Island and Goat Island Reservoirs Proposed to Be Built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on the Savannah River, for the McCormick (S.C.) Chamber of Commerce and the Abbeville County (S.C.) Planning and Development Board (February 17, 1960), 1–2, folder Rivers and Harbors 4 (Rivers) January 8–May 24, 1960, box 31, Subject Correspondence Series, 1960, STP.
42. Milazzo, Unlikely Environmentalists, 33–34.
43. James P. Nickles to Senator Richard Russell, October 9, 1962, folder Legislation 1962, Public Works, Dams, Trotters Shoals, box 167, OJP.
44. Abbeville County Citizens for Trotters Shoals advert, “Why Mead Will Not Locate at Calhoun Falls,” Anderson Independent, February 16, 1963, 5, folder Legislation Clippings, Industry, box 158, OJP.
45. Carol Speight, “Trotters Shoals: The Big Boondoggle,” South Carolina Wildlife (July–August 1976): 18–39, esp. 20.
46. Hays, History of Environmental Politics, 126; Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2005), 175–77, 180–81.
47. Jeffrey K. Stine, Mixing the Waters: Environment, Politics, and the Building of the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway (Akron: University of Akron Press, 1993), 85–86. The Corps lost another navigation project in part due to NEPA; see also Noll and Tegeder, Ditch of Dreams, 262.
48. U.S. Corps of Engineers, PRELIMINARY Environmental Impact Statement, Trotters Shoals Dam and Lake, Savannah River, Georgia and South Carolina (Savannah, Ga.: U.S. Army Engineer, Savannah District, November 1970), 23–28, series II, box 1, folder “Correspondence, 1971,” RWC. See also Thomas L. Crisman, “Natural Lakes of the Southeastern United States: Origin, Structure, and Function,” in Biodiversity of the Southeastern United States: Aquatic Communities, ed. Courtney Thomas Hackney, S. Marshall Adams, and William Haywood Martin (New York: Wiley, 1992), 475–538; John J. Hains, William E. Jabour, Robert H. Kennedy, William Boyd, James M. Satterfield, and Patrick K. Howle, Water Quality in Richard B. Russell and J. Strom Thurmond Lakes: Interim Report for the Period 1997–1998, Technical Report EL-99-13 (Calhoun Falls, S.C.: U.S. Army Engineers Research and Development Center, November 1999); and John J. Hains, “Southeastern Lakes: Changing Impacts, Issues, Demands,” LakeLine (Winter 2001/2002): 23–28.
49. U.S. Corps of Engineers, Final Environmental Impact Statement: Richard B. Russell Dam and Lake (Formerly Trotters Shoals Lake), Savannah River, Georgia and South Carolina (Savannah, Ga.: U.S. Army Engineer, Savannah District, May 1979), 46, Environmental Impact 5/74 Report folder, Construction Series, 1974–1993, RWC.
50. James R. Young, Associate Editor [Elberton Star], to “Brownie,” October 18, 1971, Correspondence, 1971, Planning and Funding Series, RWC.
51. Rep. William Jennings Bryan Dorn, Washington, D.C., to Wilbur H. Hoover, November 1, 1971, Correspondence, 1971, Planning and Funding Series, RWC.
52. Robert Williford to Waldo “Bo” McLeod, Editor, Donaldsonville News, November 24, 1971, Correspondence, 1971, Planning and Funding Series, RWC.
53. Frank Harrison, Attorney, McCormick, S.C., to Senator Olin D. Johnston, Washington, D.C., May 26, 1954, folder Legislation, 1954, Public Works, Dams, Hartwell, box 43, OJP.
54. Ibid.
55. “More Than 1,000 to Attend Annual Farm Bureau Meet,” Augusta Chronicle, November 1, 1954, 11.
56. Lisa McGirr, Suburban Warriors: The Origins of the New American Right (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001); Kevin M. Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005); Matthew D. Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006).
57. Both letters can be found in folder Legislation 1963, Public Works, Dams, Trotters Shoals, box 89, OJP; see B. H. Tucker et al. to Sen. Johnston, September 30, 1963, and Jack H. Gunnells, Greenville, S.C., to Sen. Johnston, July 22, 1963.
58. Multiple letters can be found in folder Legislation 1963, Public Works, Dams, Trotters Shoals, box 89, OJP; see Robert G. Heller to Sen. Johnston, Washington, D.C., [n.d.], 1963; N. R. Marr to Sen. Johnston, Washington, D.C., May 25, 1963; and Ralph L. Brewer, to Sen. Johnston, Washington, D.C., May 26, 1963.
59. U.S. Corps of Engineers, Final Environmental Impact Statement, 14. On landowner opposition to the project in Georgia, see Steve Oney, “A Story of Rage,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution Magazine, September 18, 1977, 14, and Steve Oney, “How the Corps Buys the Land,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution Magazine, September 18, 1977, 14, clippings in 86-01-12 Natural Resources, Commissioner’s Office—Special Projects and Issues and Areas Files, box 18, folder Richard Russell Reservoir 7/76–12/77, GAA.
60. A copy of a letter from Peyton S. Hawes to Senator Herman E. Talmadge, January 26, 1971, folder Correspondence, 1971, Planning and Funding Series, RWC; Designating the Trotters Shoals Dam and Lake, Ga. and S.C., as the Richard B. Russell Dam and Lake, 93rd Cong., 1st sess., S. Report 454, October 9, 1973.
61. Henry E. Barber and Allen R. Gann, A History of the Savannah District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Savannah, Ga.: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1989), 442–52.
62. The Russell project is one of about a dozen “pump-storage” facilities found in the United States. Water is released downstream into Clarks Hill reservoir during periods of peak demand to generate hydroelectricity, and the turbines can also be used to pump water back into Russell’s reservoir from Clarks Hill during off-peak periods. After decades of environmental studies and mitigation planning, the Corps announced in June 2013 they would begin operating all four reversible turbines at once when necessary; see “Corps Cleared to Use All Four Russell Pumpback Turbines,” Augusta Chronicle, June 3, 2013, http://chronicle.augusta.com/news/metro/2013-06-03/corps-cleared-use-all-four-russell-pumpback-turbines.
63. A. Stephen Johnson, Georgia Scenic Rivers Report, prepared for the Georgia Natural Areas Council (1971).
64. “Carter Stands Barefooted, Promises to Fight Pollution,” Atlanta Journal, August 5, 1970.
65. “Georgia Governor Dunked by Canoe,” Clayton Tribune, August 2, 1972, 6; Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water (New York: Penguin, 1986; rev. and updated ed., 1993), 307.
66. For Carter quote, see “Cost of Flint Dam Project Gives Carter 2nd Thought,” Atlanta Journal, February 25, 1973, 2A. For Carter’s claim on Flint River correspondence, see “Carter Will Await Dam Impact Report,” Atlanta Journal, June 1, 1973, 2A. The letters supporting and opposing the Flint River project can be found in Governor, Executive Dept., Governor’s Subject Files (aka Incoming Correspondence), 1781–2008, Gov. James Earl Carter (1971–1974), Subject Files, Flint River, Letters, boxes RCB 31376 and RCB 31379, 001-08-045, GAA.
67. “Carter Rejects Dam on Flint,” Atlanta Journal, October 1, 1973, 1A. In an age of fiscal conservatism and mushrooming Cold War deficits, Congress finished what Carter started and officially de-authorized the Corps’ proposed Flint River dam plans during the Ronald Reagan administration via the Water Resources Development Act of 1986 (Section 1002).
68. “Busbee Hails Proposals for 2 Dams,” Augusta Chronicle, February 3, 1975, 1; “Rep. Derrick Defies Conventional Wisdom on Dam,” Washington Post, April 3, 1977, 4.
69. “Carter’s Opposition to Water Projects Linked to ’73 Veto of Georgia Dam,” New York Times, June 13, 1977, 14; Scott A. Frisch and Sean Q. Kelly, Jimmy Carter and the Water Wars: Presidential Influence and the Politics of Pork (Amherst, N.Y.: Cambria Press, 2008), 40 n. 8.
70. For a synthesis of Carter’s hit list, see Reisner, Cadillac Desert, chap. 9, “The Peanut Farmer and the Pork Barrel,” and p. 330 for Martin quote. For more on Carter’s environmental presidency, see Jeffrey K. Stine, “Environmental Policy during the Carter Presidency,” in The Carter Presidency: Policy Choices in the Post-New Deal Era, ed. Gary M. Fink and Hugh Davis Graham ([Lawrence]: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 179–201.
1. “Blazes Blamed on Mountaineers,” Atlanta Constitution, March 2, 1976, 2-A; “Arsonists Fire NE Georgia Woodlands,” Clayton Tribune, March 4, 1976, 1 (quote); Jack Temple Kirby, “Retro Frontiersmen,” in The Countercultural South, Mercer University Lamar Memorial Lectures No. 38 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995), 33–56.
2. The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1968) named eight “instant” rivers to this protection category and identified twenty-seven additional study rivers. Southeastern study rivers included the Chattooga (Ga. and S.C.), Suwannee (Ga. and Fla.), Obed (Tenn.), and Buffalo (Tenn.). Of these four southern study rivers, only the Chattooga (1974) and Obed (1976) were granted federal wild and scenic status. A complete listing of Wild and Scenic Rivers and a legislative timeline can be found at http://www.rivers.gov/.
3. Mark W. T. Harvey, A Symbol of Wilderness: Echo Park and the American Conservation Movement (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994).
4. Nationally: Louis Warren, The Hunter’s Game: Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997); Richard W. Judd, Common Lands, Common People: The Origins of Conservation in Northern New England (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997); Karl Jacoby, Crimes against Nature: Squatters, Poachers, Thieves, and the Hidden History of American Conservation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). In Appalachia: Stephen L. Fisher, ed., Fighting Back in Appalachia: Traditions of Resistance and Change (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993); Suzanne Marshall, “Lord, We’re Just Trying to Save Your Water”: Environmental Activism and Dissent in the Appalachian South (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002); Kathryn Newfont, Blue Ridge Commons: Environmental Activism and Forest History in Western North Carolina (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012).
5. David L. Carlton and Peter A. Coclanis, eds., Confronting Poverty in the Great Depression: The Report on the Economic Conditions of the South with Related Documents (Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press, 1996).
6. Harvey, Symbol of Wilderness, xvi; Karl Boyd Brooks, Public Power, Private Dams: The Hells Canyon High Dam Controversy (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006).
7. Vicki Constantine Croke, “The Brothers Wild,” Washington Post Magazine, November 11, 2007.
8. U.S. Congress, Senate, Select Committee on National Water Resources, Water Resources Hearing, 86th Cong., 1st sess., October 9, 12, 1959, 460.
9. John J. Craighead, “Wild Rivers,” Naturalist 16, 3 (Autumn 1965): 1–5, esp. 5.
10. U.S. Congress, Senate, Select Committee on National Water Resources, Water Resources Hearing, 457–63.
11. U.S. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, Outdoor Recreation for America, a Report to the President and to the Congress (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1962), 173.
12. Tim Palmer has made significant contributions to the national history of wild and scenic rivers, and the best books are The Wild and Scenic Rivers of America (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1993) and Endangered Rivers and the Conservation Movement, 2nd ed. (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004), 155–56 (Craighead quote).
13. President Lyndon Baines Johnson, Special Message to the Congress on Conservation and Restoration of Natural Beauty, February 8, 1965, http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/650208.asp (March 10, 2013).
14. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Amending the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act by Designating the Chattooga River, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia as a Component of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, submitted by the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 93rd Cong., 1st sess., November 29, 1973, House Report 675, 2; Palmer, Wild and Scenic Rivers of America, 25–26.
15. U.S. Department of the Interior, news release, “Wild Rivers Team Selects Twelve Rivers for Detailed Study,” August 5, 1964, folder Topical Files, 1964, Duke Power, box 68, WDP.
16. “Duke Plans $700 Million Oconee, Pickens Projects,” Anderson Mail, January 2, 1965, folder Legislation Clippings, Industry, box 158, OJP.
17. Stewart L. Udall, Secretary of the Interior, to Joseph C. Swidler, Chairman, Federal Power Commission, July 28, 1965, 3, folder Topical Files, 1965, Keowee-Toxaway, box 72, WDP.
18. Jack L. Brown, Postmaster, Mountain Rest, S.C., to Rep. W. J. B. Dorn, Washington, D.C., May 25, 1966, folder Topical Files, 1966, Savannah River, box 77, WDP.
19. Ramone Eaton, Vice President, American Red Cross, Washington, D.C., to C. Thomas Wyche, Greenville, S.C., December 18, 1967, Chattooga Conservancy Files, Clayton, Ga.; Henry Wallace, “Ramone Eaton—A Tribute,” American Whitewater 25, no. 3 (May–June 1980): 15–19; Payson Kennedy, “River Exploration in the Southern Appalachians,” in First Descents: In Search of Wild Rivers, ed. Cameron O’Connor and John Lazenby (Birmingham, Ala.: Menasha Ridge Press, 1989), 146–54.
20. C. Thomas Wyche, Greenville, S.C., to Senator Ernest Hollings (August 10, 1967) and to Rep. W. J. B. Dorn (August 10, 1967), both in Chattooga Conservancy Files, Clayton, Ga. See also John Lane, Chattooga: Descending into the Myth of Deliverance River (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004), 35–37.
21. John McPhee, Encounters with the Archdruid (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1971), 159.
22. State Council for the Preservation of Natural Areas Act (March 10, 1966), Ga. L. 1966, 330; Georgia Council for the Preservation of Natural Areas, Report of the First Year of Operation, 1967–69 (Decatur: n.p., n.d.).
23. Marshall, “Lord, We’re Just Trying to Save Your Water,” 111–13; Jerry L. McCollum, “President’s Column: Charles Wharton—Champion of Georgia’s Unspoiled Places,” The Call 14, no. 1 (Winter 2004).
24. Georgia was among a half-dozen states that did, or attempted to, establish state-level river protection acts before 1970. See Palmer, Endangered Rivers, 158; Georgia Scenic Rivers Act of 1969 (April 28, 1969), Ga. L. 1969, 933; “Georgia Scenic Rivers Bill in Senate, Has Chattooga,” Clayton (Ga.) Tribune, February 13, 1969; A. Stephen Johnson, Georgia Scenic Rivers Report, prepared for the Georgia Natural Areas Council (1971); Phil Garner, “The Master Grantsman,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution Magazine, May 14, 1978, 12.
25. Robert E. Hanie to Dr. H. S. Alden, Atlanta, Georgia, May 13, 1967, folder History of the Conservancy, box 7, GNAC, 1966–73, State Parks and Historical Sites (of the Georgia Dept. of Natural Resources collection), 30-8-43, GAA; “Georgia Conservancy Receives Charter; Officers, Committees Named,” Georgia Conservancy Quarterly, Winter 1968, box 22, folder “Miscellaneous re Various Civic Activities,” JMP.
26. Frustrated members left the conservancy and formed Save America’s Vital Environment to “attack environmental problems from a non-tax-exempt platform”; see Merle Schlesinger Lefkoff, “The Voluntary Citizens’ Group as a Public Policy Alternative to the Political Party: A Case Study of the Georgia Conservancy” (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1975), 25–34, 156–59.
27. “Georgia Conservancy Receives Charter”; Lefkoff, “Voluntary Citizens’ Group,” 156.
28. “Field Trips—Rare Good Fun,” Georgia Conservancy Quarterly, Winter 1968, folder “Miscellaneous re Various Civic Activities,” box 22, JMP.
29. Doug Woodward, Wherever Waters Flow: A Lifelong Love Affair with Wild Rivers (Franklin, N.C.: Headwaters Publishing, 2006), 106 n. 25; William Dunlap, telephone conversation with author, September 1, 2005, notes in author’s possession.
30. Andrew Sparks, “Can We Keep the Chattooga Wild?” Atlanta Journal and Constitution Magazine, September 22, 1968, 12; “Group Discusses Development and Objectives for Chattooga River,” Clayton Tribune, November 28, 1968; “Chattooga Has Friends,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, December 8, 1968. See also a sample letter sent to the Dillard meeting invitees, Robert Hanie, Executive Director, Georgia Council for the Preservation of Natural Areas, October 22, 1968, GNAC, folder Chattooga Seminar, Nov. 20–21, box 10, GAA.
31. The watershed drains approximately 180,000 acres. Today, the Forest Service manages about 122,000 acres, with 14,000 acres making up the Wild and Scenic River Corridor. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Region, Wild and Scenic River Study Report: Chattooga River, June 15, 1971, 31; U.S. Congress, House, Subcommittee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Wild and Scenic Rivers Act Amendments, pt. 2, 93rd Cong., 1st sess., October 29–30, 1973, 11; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Region, Revised Land and Management Plan: Sumner National Forest, Management Bulletin R8-MB 116A, January 2004, 4–5 and chapter 4, “Management Area 2—Chattooga River.”
32. Wade H. Wright, History of the Georgia Power Company, 1855–1956 (Atlanta: Georgia Power Company, 1957), 212.
33. “Atom Site Chosen by Georgia Power,” Atlanta Journal, November 2, 1967, 22-A; “Power Firm Nets 5.2 PCT,” Atlanta Journal, October 18, 1968, 21-A; “Georgia Power Company Faces Job Bias Suit,” Atlanta Journal, January 10, 1969, 2-A. See also Jeff Goodell, Big Coal: The Dirty Secret behind America’s Energy Future (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006), 155–57.
34. For quotes: Sparks, “Can We Keep the Chattooga Wild?” 17; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Region, Wild and Scenic River Study Report, 117–18. See also Buzz Williams, “The Wild and Scenic Chattooga River,” Chattooga Quarterly, Spring 2004, 3–4.
35. Del W. Thorsen, Forest Supervisor, Columbia, S.C., to Rep. W. J. B. Dorn, Washington, D.C., March 10, 1971, folder Topical Files, 1971–1972, Rivers and Harbors, Chattooga River, box 97, WDP.
36. Rabun County, Georgia, and Oconee County, South Carolina: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Eighteenth U.S. Census, 1960: Characteristics of the Population, and Nineteenth U.S. Census, 1970: Characteristics of the Population.
37. John D. Ridley, telephone conversation with the author, March 27, 2006, notes in author’s possession.
38. The Forest Service has since turned the Russell property into an interpretive site highlighting the property’s nineteenth-century use. An arsonist targeted one structure in 1988; see Ray Chandler, “Forest Service to Allow More Public Comment on Proposed Oconee Pioneer Farmstead,” Anderson Independent Mail, September 4, 2009, http://www.independentmail.com/news/2009/sep/04/forest-service-allow-more-public-comment-proposed-/ (March 10, 2013).
39. Nicole Hayler, Sound Wormy: Memoir of Andrew Gennett, Lumberman (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2002), 101–6, 112–13, 209 n. 8; Susan Lewis Koyle, Genealogy Extracted from Forest Service Court Cases in Rabun County, Georgia (Bowie, Md.: Heritage Books, 2001); R. C. Nicholson, “The Federal Forestry Service,” in Sketches of Rabun County History, 1819–1948, ed. Andrew Jackson Ritchie (Chelsea, Mich.: Rabun County, Georgia, Historical Society, 1995), 358–66.
40. Handwritten notes on map, U.S. Forest Service, Chattooga River: As a Wild and Scenic River (1971), folder Chattooga River, box 28, Special Projects and Issues and Areas Files, Commissioner’s Office, Georgia Department of Natural Resources (86-01-12), GAA.
41. Ridley telephone conversation with the author.
42. “Chattooga’s Role under Rivers Act Discussed,” Keowee Courier, December 4, 1968, 3; “Proposals Outlined to Make Wild, Scenic Site of Area along Chattooga River,” Greenville News, April 16, 1969, 10; “Hearing on Chattooga River Project Set for December 5,” Clayton Tribune, December 4, 1969, 1; “Group Studies Chattooga Wild River; To Have Camping Facilities,” Clayton Tribune, March 26, 1970, 1 (quote).
43. Sparks, “Can We Keep the Chattooga Wild?” 18; “Proposals Outlined to Make Wild, Scenic Site of Area along Chattooga River,” 10.
44. “Proceeding of Chattooga River Study Meeting,” Clemson House, Clemson, S.C., April 15, 1969, GNAC, folder Chattooga Seminar, Nov. 20–21, box 10, GAA.
45. “Opinions on Developing Chattooga River Differ,” Greenville News, September 1, 1971.
46. Louis Warren articulates the difference between locals and elites, as well as their residence status, to illustrate how local and state authorities negotiated access to, and protection of, resources. See Hunter’s Game, 23–27, 177.
47. U.S. Congress, House, Subcommittee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Wild and Scenic Rivers Act Amendments, 54.
48. Sparks, “Can We Keep the Chattooga Wild?” 17; Kennedy, “River Exploration in the Southern Appalachians,” 146–54.
49. “Chattooga Well Worth Effort,” Keowee Courier, April 23, 1969; U.S. Congress, House, Subcommittee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Wild and Scenic Rivers Act Amendments, 59–60.
50. “Bill Would Add Chattooga River to Wild, Scenic Rivers System,” Sylva Herald and Ruralite, July 26, 1973, 6; U.S. Congress, House, Subcommittee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Wild and Scenic Rivers Act Amendments.
51. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, A Proposal: The Chattooga, “A Wild and Scenic River,” March 3, 1970; Jim Morrison, “Chattooga Wild River Study Release: Is It Strong Enough to Save River?” Newsletter of the Georgia Conservancy, Inc., March 18, 1970; “March 17 Meeting to Hear Forest Service Proposal,” Clayton Tribune, March 12, 1970, 1.
52. Dr. Claude Terry, Watershed Development Subcommittee of the House Public Works Committee, Macon, Georgia, October 12, [1969?], folder Georgia Conservancy, 1969–1970, box 9, Department of Game and Fish (25-01-008), GAA; Dr. Claude Terry, “What Is a Floodplain?” Georgia Conservancy Quarterly Magazine: The Rivers and Streams of Georgia, August 1972, Georgia Room, Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Georgia, Athens; U.S. Congress, Senate, Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Proposed Wild and Scenic Chattooga River and the Conveyance of Certain Public Lands, 93rd Congress, 1st sess., October 10, 1973, 81.
53. U.S. Congress, Senate, Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Proposed Wild and Scenic Chattooga River, 89.
54. Doug Woodward, “Ship of State,” in Wherever Waters Flow, 193–201.
55. U.S. Congress, Senate, Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Proposed Wild and Scenic Chattooga River, 46, 57–58.
56. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, P.L. 90–542, October 2, 1968, Section 10(a), emphasis added.
57. John Craighead, “Wild River,” Montana Wildlife, June 1957, 15–20; U.S. Congress, Senate, Select Committee on National Water Resources, Water Resources Hearing, 457–63.
58. John Boorman, Deliverance (1974), DVD.
59. John C. Inscoe, “Appalachian Otherness, Real and Perceived,” in The New Georgia Guide (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996), 165–70.
60. Claude E. Hastings, Environmental Protection Coordinator, Georgia State Game and Fish Commission, to Jack Crockford, Assistant Director, Georgia State Game and Fish Commission, Atlanta, Ga., September 10, 1971, 25–01–008 Department of Game and Fish Records, box 3, folder Chattooga River, Wild and Scenic River Study, 1971, GAA.
61. Phil Garner, “Shooting Georgia’s Wildest Rapids,” Atlanta Journal and Constitution Magazine, September 19, 1971, 20; Phil Garner, “The Deliverance Syndrome,” Atlanta Journal and Constitution Magazine, November 18, 1973, 16; American Whitewater, archived online, http://www.americanwhitewater.org/journal/archive/, specifically see Donal R. Mayrick, “Spelunkers on the Chattooga River,” American Whitewater 17, no. 4 (Winter 1972): 142–47, and Donald H. Wilson, “Chattooga!” American Whitewater 18, no. 3 (Autumn 1973): 113–17.
62. Kennedy, “River Exploration in the Southern Appalachians”; Woodward, Wherever Waters Flow, 177–91.
63. Woodward, Wherever Waters Flow, 162–70. For visitor statistics, see Don Belt, “Chattooga River Country: Wild Water, Proud People,” National Geographic 163, no. 4 (April 1983): 458–76, esp. 471. Since 1970 the Forest Service has recorded forty fatalities on the Chattooga River; see “Fatalities or Near Fatalities,” http://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5392005.pdf (August 14, 2013).
64. “River Bill Backed without a Ripple,” Atlanta Journal, October 10, 1973, 10-C.
65. T. Craig Martin, “Chattooga,” Outdoors in Georgia 2, no. 7 (July 1973): 15–23, esp. 20 (quotes).
66. “No Place for Amateur: The Chattooga Is Dangerous,” Atlanta Constitution, May 4, 1973, 9-A; “Many Try to Beat the River,” Atlanta Constitution, August 26, 1973, 8-F; U.S. Congress, Senate, Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Proposed Wild and Scenic Chattooga River, 71; An Act to Amend Wild and Scenic Rivers, P.L. 93–279, May 10, 1974.
67. “Proposals Outlined to Make Wild, Scenic Site of Area along Chattooga River,” 10; “Hearing on Chattooga River Project Set for December 5,” 1; “March 17 Meeting To Hear Forest Service Proposal, Chattooga River,” 1; “Chattooga Listening Sessions,” Clayton Tribune, January 24, 1974, 4.
68. Williams, “Wild and Scenic Chattooga River,” 4; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Region, Wild and Scenic River Study Report. I have attempted to locate these comments without success.
69. Max Gates, telephone conversation with author, February 21, 2006, notes in author’s possession.
70. Paul W. Hirt, A Conspiracy of Optimism: Management of the National Forests since World War II (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 183.
71. “Forest Service Lists Sites for Fuelwood without Permit,” Clayton Tribune, September 12, 1974; “Free Firewood Areas Prove to Be Successful,” Clayton Tribune, January 29, 1976, 11.
72. Gates telephone conversation with author. See also “News from the US Forest Service,” Clayton Tribune, December 11, 1975, A12; “News from the Forest Service,” Clayton Tribune, January 8, 1976.
73. Kathryn Newfont, “Grassroots Environmentalism: Origins of the Western North Carolina Alliance,” Appalachian Journal 27, no. 1 (Fall 1999): 46–61, esp. 57. See also Newfont, Blue Ridge Commons, and Belt, “Chattooga River Country,” 471.
74. “Public vs. Private Land Use,” Clayton Tribune, March 11, 1976, 4; Shelley Smith Mastran and Nan Lowerre, Mountaineers and Rangers: A History of Federal Forest Management in the Southern Appalachians, 1900–81, FS-380 (Washington, D.C.: USDA, Forest Service, April 1983), esp. chap. 8.
75. “Opinions on Developing Chattooga River Differ.”
76. U.S. Forest Service, “For Immediate Release” (copy), Rivers and Harbors 4 (Rivers), May 13–October 1, 1974, box 34, Subject Correspondence Series, 1954–1976, J. Strom Thurmond, Mss 100, Special Collections Unit, Clemson University Libraries, Clemson, S.C.
77. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, Section 2(b), emphasis in original.
78. Proceedings of Chattooga River Study Meeting, Clemson House, Clemson, S.C., April 15, 1969, folder Natural Areas Council, Georgia, Scenic Rivers, Chattooga River, 1969, box 12, Department of Game and Fish (25-01-008), GAA; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Region, Wild and Scenic River Study Report, 159.
79. Rabun County (Ga.) Board of Commissioners—Monthly Board Meeting, October 2, 1972, 2, available online through MCCi Online Library: http://www.mccinnovations.com/weblink/login.aspx (March 10, 2013).
80. “Corridor of Chattooga Closed to Vehicles,” Clayton Tribune, October 10, 1974, 1; Senator Herman E. Talmadge, Washington, D.C., to Brian Webb, Blairsville, Ga., May 20, 1976, letter reprinted in the Clayton Tribune, June 3, 1976, 4.
81. Charlie Huppuch, interview notes in Tetra Tech EC, Inc., Chattooga River History Project: Literature Review and Interview Summary, prepared for USDA, Forest Service, Atlanta, Georgia, August 25, 2006, http://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fsbdev3_037030.pdf (August 14, 2013).
82. “Chattooga Included in Wild Rivers Act,” Clayton Tribune, June 6, 1974, 1; “Chattooga Access to Be Limited,” Clayton Tribune, June 6, 1974, 1.
83. Kirby, “Retro Frontiersmen,” 33–56; Paul M. Kankula, “Environmental Legislation,” Mountain Rest Community Club: US Forest Service (Seneca, Oconee County, S.C., April, 2003), http://files.usgwarchives.net/sc/oconee/history/MR-02.txt (August 14, 2013).
84. “Suspected Arsonist Captured; Charged with Shooting Ranger,” Clayton Tribune, March 16, 1972, 1.
85. “Mountain Men Rekindle Feud with Government,” Sumter Daily Item, March 1, 1976, 16; “Blazes Blamed on Mountaineers,” “Forests Burned in Timber Feud,” Ocala (Fla.) Star-Banner, March 2, 1976, 6; “Arsonists Fire NE Georgia Woodlands,” Clayton Tribune, March 3, 1976, 1.
86. Kankula, “Environmental Legislation.” A search in the Clayton Tribune between March 1976 and May 1978 did not reveal if anybody was ever caught or charged in connection with these fires.
87. Smith and Lowerre, Mountaineers and Rangers, 169.
88. U.S. Congress, House, Subcommittee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Wild and Scenic Rivers Act Amendments, 11.
89. Congress eventually designated other wild, scenic, and recreational rivers in the southeastern United States after 1974, but the Chattooga remains the longest Appalachian and southern mountain river with segments in all three categories. See the National Park Service’s “National Wild and Scenic Rivers System” for statistics: http://www.rivers.gov/rivers/ (August 14, 2013).
90. Lane, Chattooga, 97.
1. U.S. Drought Monitor Archive, http://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/archive.html; Andrew Freedman, “Heat Wave Leads to ‘Weather Whiplash,’” Capital Weather Gang, Washington Post, April 27, 2009, http://voices.washingtonpost.com/capitalweathergang/2009/04/in_light_of_last_weeks.html (August 24, 2013); “How Wet Has It Been?” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, June 25, 2013, http://www.ajc.com/news/news/local/how-wet-has-it-been-atlantas-rainfall-in-first-hal/nYTdh/ (August 24, 2013); “Not Much Impact near Savannah after Dam Bursts in Screven County,” Savannah Morning News, July 14, 2013, http://savannahnow.com/news/2013–07–14/not-much-impact-near-savannah-after-dam-bursts-screven-county#.UhkPF9Jwp9k (August 24, 2013); “Lake Alice Remedy in Place,” NorhtFulton.com, June 10, 2013, http://www.northfulton.com/Articles-NEWS-c-2013–06–10–199218.114126-sub-Lake-Alice-remedy-in-place.html (August 24, 2013); “Torrential Rains Take a Toll on S.C. Crops,” Charlotte Observer, August 24, 2013, http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2013/08/19/4248757/torrential-rains-take-toll-on.html (24, 2013); “Augusta Closes Parks, Cancels Events as Savannah River Rises from Upstream Flooding,” Florida Times Union, July 11, 2013, http://jacksonville.com/news/georgia/2013–07–11/story/augusta-closes-parks-cancels-events-savannah-river-rises-upstream (August 24, 2013).
2. “Carolinas Reach Deal on Catawba,” Charlotte Observer, November 13, 2010, http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2010/11/13/1834088/carolinas-reach-deal-on-catawba.html (July 23, 2011); “McMaster Says SC-NC Water Case Is Over,” Columbia State, December 21, 2010, http://www.thestate.com/2010/12/21/1615297/mcmaster-says-sc-nc-water-case.html (July 23, 2011); “Water War’s Welcome End,” Charleston Post and Courier, December 31, 2010, http://www.postandcourier.com/news/2010/dec/31/water-wars-welcome-end/ (July 23, 2011).
3. E-mail announcement, attendee list and agenda minutes, “Southeastern Drought & Reliability Meeting” (November 16, 2007), provided to the author by Southeastern Power Administration (SEPA), Freedom of Information Act Request #2011-0032. A single sentence in one media story did result; see “Georgia’s Water Crisis: The Power of Water,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, November 18, 2007, A1.
4. Southern Company is the second-largest, based on market value, http://www.statista.com/statistics/237773/the-largest-electric-utilities-in-the-us-based-on-market-value/ (March 27, 2014); “Duke and Progress Energy Become Largest U.S. Utility,” New York Times, July 3, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/04/business/energy-environment/duke-energy-merger-creates-largest-us-utility.html?_r=0 (August 24, 2013); Jeff Goodell, Big Coal: The Dirty Secret behind America’s Energy Future (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006), 149–55; “Barbour’s Kemper Connection,” Mississippi Business Journal, April 25, 2010, http://msbusiness.com/2010/04/barbour%E2%80%99s-kemper-connection/ (August 24, 2013); “Alabama’s Cost of Power—I mean Influence—Is High,” Birmingham (Ala.), al.com, April 17, 2011, http://blog.al.com/archiblog/2011/04/alabamas_cost_of_power_—_i_me.html (August 24, 2013); “Southern Company, a Lobbying Powerhouse, Fights New Carbon Rules,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, September 1, 2013; “Lobbyist Spending Scaled Back 12 Percent in 2013,” International Business Times, January 23, 2014, http://www.ibtimes.com/lobbyist-spending-scaled-back-12-percent-2013–1547081 (March 31, 2014).
5. “N.C. Pulls Deal with Duke on Coal Ash Pollution,” Associated Press, March 21, 2014, http://bigstory.ap.org/article/nc-pulls-deal-duke-coal-ash-pollution (March 27, 2014); “Duke Energy Has the Power,” News and Observer, March 8, 2014, http://www.newsobserver.com/2014/03/08/3685111/christensen-duke-energy-has-the.html (March 27, 2014).
6. Garrett retired, and Paul Bowers succeeded him not only as the new Georgia Power CEO but also as “the behind the scenes consultant” for Georgia, according to Governor Nathan Deal; see “Deal Taps Ga. Power’s Bowers for Water Talks,” Atlanta Business Chronicle, February 3, 2011, http://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/print-edition/2011/02/04/Bowers.html (August 24, 2013). See also “Georgia Power Takes a Fresh Look at Nuclear Power,” Creative Loafing Atlanta, August 22, 2007, http://clatl.com/atlanta/georgia-power-takes-a-fresh-look-at-nuclear-power/Content?oid=1269189 (August 24, 2013).
7. “Electricity Demand Guzzling State’s Water,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, November 18, 2007; “Regulators Weigh Small Fish vs. Power Plants,” Charlotte Observer, July 17, 2011, http://www.newsobserver.com/2011/07/17/1349621/small-fish-vs-power-plants.html (August 24, 2013); Joan F. Kenny et al., Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2005, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1344 (2009), 1.
8. Georgia Power, Plant Bowen: One Team, One Future, n.d., http://www.georgiapower.com/docs/about-us/Plant%20Bowen%20brochure.pdf (August 24, 2013); “Georgia Power to Set Up Water Research Center at Plant Bowen,” SaportaReport.com, April 20, 2011, http://saportareport.com/blog/2011/04/georgia-power-to-set-up-water-research-center-at-plant-bowen/ (August 24, 2013); Georgia Power Press Release, “Georgia Power to Develop Water Research Center,” April 20, 2011, http://www.georgiapower.com/news/iframe_pressroom.asp (July 22, 2011); Georgia Power Press Release via Rome Tribune, “New Technology Assists Plant Bowen in Water Usage Efficiency,” May 31, 2011, http://rn-t.com/view/full_story/13501656/article-New-technology-assists-Plant-Bowen-in-water-usage-efficiency-?instance=home_news_lead_story (August 24, 2013); “Georgia Power Dedicated Research Center at Plant Bowen,” Daily Tribune News, November 20, 2013, http://www.daily-tribune.com/view/full_story/24085712/article-Georgia-Power-dedicates-research-center-at-Plant-Bowen (March 27, 2014); “EPA Surveys Plant Bowen Coal Ash Pond as Part of National Study,” Rome News Tribune, September 12, 2009, http://www.northwestgeorgianews.com/rome/news/epa-surveys-plant-bowen-coal-ash-pond-as-part-of/article_0a28775f-770a-5e72-aa76–689f40fc5ea7.html (March 31, 2014).
9. Georgia Power, “About Us: Our Promise to You,” http://www.georgiapower.com/about-us/our-brand-promise.cshtml (August 24, 2013).
10. “Solar Groups Seek Tea-Party Support,” Wall Street Journal, July 2, 2013, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887323689204578573720128231396.html (September 3, 2013).
11. Kenny et al., Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2005, 1.
12. Elias Fereres, David A. Goldhamer, and Larry R. Parsons, “Irrigation Water Management of Horticultural Crops,” HortScience 38, no. 5 (August 2003): 1036–42, esp. 1037–38.
13. U.S. Study Commission, Plan for the Development of the Land and Water Resources of the Southeast River Basins, Appendix 12, Planning (Atlanta: n.p., 1963), 2-40 through 2-48. See also Bill Allen, “State Hooks Title: ‘Paradise o’ Ponds,’” Atlanta Journal, September 13, 1953, 12. Allen claimed 15,000 irrigated acres, and another source claimed 27,700 acres: Georgia Water Use and Conservation Committee, Water in Georgia: A Report on the Historical, Physical, and Legal Aspects of Water in Georgia, Prepared and Submitted to the Governor, the General Assembly, and the People of Georgia ([Atlanta]: Georgia Water Law Revision Commission, 1955), 55.
14. Robert R. Pierce, Nancy L. Barber, and Harold R. Stiles, Georgia Irrigation, 1970–1980: A Decade of Growth, Water-Resources Investigations Report 83–4177 (n.p.: U.S. Geological Survey and Georgia Department of Natural Resources, 1984), 1, 14, 24. For crop and irrigation data, see the National Environmentally Sound Production Agriculture Laboratory (NESPAL), a unit of the University of Georgia’s College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, data online, http://www.nespal.org/sirp/agwateruse/facts/survey/default.asp (August 24, 2013).
15. Kerry Harrison, “2008 Irrigation Survey,” January 16, 2009, http://www.nespal.org/sirp/agwateruse/facts/survey/..%5C2009.0122.IrrSurvey08_misc_pub.pdf (August 24, 2013); Jim Hook and Kerry Harrison, “Agricultural Irrigation Development in Georgia” (2009), in “Agricultural Irrigation Water Demand: Georgia’s Major and Minor Crops, 2011 through 2050,” http://www.nespal.org/sirp/waterinfo/state/awd/Background/AgWaterDemand_GaIrrDevelopment.htm (August 24, 2013).
16. Kenny et al., Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2005, 1.
17. “‘We’re Not Really Rooting for Ourselves Anymore,’” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, February 6, 2011, http://www.ajc.com/news/news/local/were-not-really-rooting-for-ourselves-anymore/nQqNk/ (July 23, 2011); “Atlanta’s Reputation Is Sinking,” Atlanta Business Chronicle Blog: Real Talk, June 20, 2011, http://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/real_talk/2011/06/atlantas-reputation-is-sinking.html (July 23, 2011).
18. “Regulator: New Nuke Plant Now Wouldn’t Make Sense,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, August 13, 2013; “Solar Has Bright Future in Georgia,” Savannah Morning News, September 3, 2013.
19. For an excellent synthesis of the so-called water wars and the 2013 flare-up, see Neill Herring, “Water Wars Redux,” Creative Loafing Atlanta, August 21, 2013, http://clatl.com/atlanta/water-wars-redux/Content?oid=9059308 (August 24, 2013), and Susannah Nesmith, “Return of the Water Wars,” Columbia Journalism Review, August 27, 2013, http://www.cjr.org/united_states_project/water_wars_return_florida_to_sue_georgia_over_apalachicola_oysters.php?page=all (September 3, 2013).
20. “Ga., S.C. Stuck on Saltwater Intrusion,” Savannah Morning News, May 12, 2013, http://savannahnow.com/news/2013–05–12/ga-sc-stuck-saltwater-intrusion#.UhjWT3_3N10 (August 24, 2013).
21. “Georgia’s Offer to Settle a 195-Year-Old Border Fight with Tennessee,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, February 8, 2013, http://www.ajc.com/weblogs/political-insider/2013/feb/08/your-daily-jolt-georgias-offer-settle-195-year-old/ (August 24, 2013); Georgia Water Contingency Planning Task Force, Appendix III, December 2009, http://sonnyperdue.georgia.gov/vgn/images/portal/cit_1210/0/57/155134868Water%20Contingency%20Planning%20Task%20Force%20Report%20-%20Appendix%20III%20-%20Complete%20set%200f%200ptions%20evaluated.pdf (August 24, 2013).
22. “Tussle over Plan to Supplement Flint River Streams,” Newnan Times Herald, March 31, 2013, http://www.times-herald.com/local/BC-GA-XGR—Flint-River-Pumping-1st-Ld-Writethru-MOS (March 31, 2014); “Georgia’s Water Negotiator’s Role May Be Seen as Conflict,” Memphis (Tenn.) Commercial Appeal, May 19, 2013, http://www.commercialappeal.com/news/2013/may/19/georgia-water-negotiators-role-may-be-seen-conflic/ (August 24, 2013).
23. John Brock, “Future of Metro Atlanta’s Water Should Be a Balance between the Economy and the Environment,” SaportaReport, February 21, 2011, http://saportareport.com/blog/2011/02/water-in-atlanta-region-should-be-a-balance-between-the-economy-and-the-environment/ (August 24, 2013).
24. Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983).
25. Juliet Christian-Smith and Peter H. Glick, A Twenty-First Century US Water Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).
26. American Rivers—among other NGOs—has advocated on these issues for more than a decade. See Hidden Reservoir: Why Water Efficiency Is the Best Solution for the Southeast (2008), http://www.americanrivers.org/assets/pdfs/reports-and-publications/SE_Water_Efficiency_Oct_2008_opt3534.pdf (September 1, 2013), and Money Pit: The High Cost and High Risk of Water Supply Reservoirs in the Southeast (July 2012), http://www.americanrivers.org/assets/pdfs/reports-and-publications/money-pit-report.pdf (September 1, 2013).
27. L. M. Carter et al., “Southeast and the Caribbean,” chap. 17 in Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment, ed. J. M. Melillo et al. (U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2014), 396–417; J. Rogers et al., Water-Smart Power: Strengthening the U.S. Electricity System in a Warming World (Cambridge, Mass.: Union of Concerned Scientists, July 2013).